THE 

FARMER'S AND EMIGRANT'S 
HAID-BOOK;^ 

BEING A 

FULL AND COMPLETE GUIDE 

FOR TII.E 

FARMER AND THE EMIGRANT. 

» 

• COMPRISING THK 

CLEARING OF FOREST AND PUAIRIE LAND GARDENING FARMINfl 

GENERALLY FARRIERY COOKERY AND THE PRE- 
VENTION AND CURE OF DISEASES, 

WITH COPIOUS HINTS, RECIPES, AND TABLES. 

BY JO SI AH T. M IRS HALL, 

AUTHOR OF THE KXIGI..\t'b TRUE GUIDE. 



UTICA : 

H . H . H A W L E Y . 

1852, 






ENTERED, ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1849, BY 

H. II. IIAWLEY & CO. 

IN THE CLERK'S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT OF CONNECTICUT. 



33 1^^1 

^0^ 



TO 

JOHN JACOB ASTOR, 

OF NEW- YORK, 
AN EMIGRANT FROM THE RHINE, 

AN HONOR TO THE COUNTRY OF HIS BIRTH AND OF HIS ADOPTIONj: 

tS-Us unpxtttntjim Volume i» fnscrffietr, 

WITH THE VERY GREAT RESPECT OF 

THE AUTHOR. 



NOTICE BY THE PUBLISHERS. 



In times past, the European emigrants, and even the 
settlers from the Atlantic States who removed to the 
West, were exposed to numberless trials and disadvan- 
tages, chiefly arising from the dearth of essential informa- 
tion concerning the various novel circumstances in which 
the change of their abode and habits of life unavoidably- 
placed them. A luminous and ample Directory send 
Guide, comprehensive and minute, the result of experi- 
ence and observation, has long been desired by both of 
the classes of persons referred to ; and also by those who 
have been born and nurtured in the newly opened dis- 
tricts. 

The Publishers are gratified that they are enabled 
to satisfy the universal demand, by a volume which 
comprises a mass of superior materials, partly derived 
from the most authentic sources, and partly obtained by ex- 
tensive and protracted research. Some of the most valua- 
ble articles have been taken from the transactions of the 
New York State Agricultural Society ; others have been 
selected from the periodical miscellanies devoted to the 
concerns of a farm and to the manner of life in the new 
settlements. To a monthly work published* at Chicago, 
entitled the " Prairie Farmer," the author has frequently 
adverted, as a most useful and necessary instructor for 
all those who would derive advantage from long-tried 
skill and practical attention to the multiplied efforts of 
those who have passed through all the gradations of a 
settler's life; from the primary chopping of trees and a 



log-cabin, to the enjoyment of all the beauty and com- 
forts of a luxuriant and fertile garden-spot, replete with 
opulence and ornament. 

The contents of the " Farmer's and Emigrant's Hand- 
Book" can be accurately known and duly estimated, only 
by a recurrence to the Index of subjects ; which occupies 
twenty -four columns, comprising dihoni ff teen hundred dif- 
ferent points of information respecting the management 
of a Farm, from the first purchase and clearing of the 
land to all its extensive details and departments. The 
necessary conveniences, the household economy, the care 
of the animals, the preservation of domestic health ; the 
cultivation of fruits, with the science and taste of the ar- 
borist, and the production of the most advantageous arti- 
cles for sale, are all displayed in a plain, instructive, and 
most satisfactory manner ; adapted peculiarly to the classes 
of citizens for whose use and benefit the work is specially 
designed. Besides a general outline of the Constitution, 
with the Naturalization and Pre-emption Laws of the Uni- 
ted States, there is appended a Miscellany of 120 pages, in- 
cluding a rich varietyof advice, hints, and rules, the study 
and knowledge of which will unspeakably promote both the 
comfort and welfare of all who adopt and practise them. 

The Publishers are assured that the commendations 
which the '•' Farmer's and Emigrant's Hand-Book" has 
received are fully merited ; and they respectfully submit 
the work to Agriculturists, in the full conviction that the 
Farmer or the Emigrant, in any part of the country, will 
derive numberless blessings and improvements from his 
acquaintance with Mr. Marshall's manual. 

Hartford, (Conn.) 1849. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 

VAai 

Purchasing and Clearing Timber Land, . - .13 

CHAPTER ir 
Prairie Farming, - ... - . . 23 

CHAPTER III. 
On the general management of a Farm, .... 33 

CH.APTER IV. 
Farm Buildings, Fences, etc. . - - - - . 67 

CHAPTER V. 
The Dairy, - - . 105 

CHAPTER VI. 

Household Department, comprising all kind of Cookery, etc. - 121 

CHAPTER VII. 

Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Horses, Swine, etc., and the Remedies, 173 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Medical Department: with hints for the preservation of Health j 

and the treatment of Wounds, Bites, Accidents, etc. - 233 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IX. 

FAOK. 

The Fruit Garden, and Forest and Fruit-trees, - - - 285 

CHAPTER X. 
Cultivation of Dyer's Madder, 315 

CHAPTER XI. 
Curing Provisions for the English Market, etc. etc. - - 323 

CHAPTER XII. 
Lard Oils, etc. etc. - 330 

CHAPTER XIIT. 
Hops, etc. etc. - - - ----- 335 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Glance at the Constitution of the United States, etc. - - 341 

CHAPTER XV. 
Naturalization and Preemption Laws, ... - 350 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Miscellany : — Containing a vast variety of Recipes, Hints, Ta 
bles. Facts, etc. etc., to aid the Emigrant, w^hether male 
or female, in daily life, ----- 359 

A. 
Ikbei, ' ----- - . . - 481 



THE 



FARMER'S AND EMIGRANT'S 

HAID-BOOK. 



CHAPTER I. 

PURCHASING AND CLEARING TIMBERED LAND. 

Those emigrants who decide upon purchasing wild 
land, whether forest or prairie, should be exceedingly 
cautious in every stage of the business. Everything 
depends on making a good selection. We have known 
persons to toil on for years, with little advantage to them- 
selves, and then give back the land they had purchased 
and partly paid for, simply because of having made a 
bad choice at the outset. A mistake of the kind alluded 
to, is a most serious one to' the new settler. Besides the 
waste of time and money it occasions, it tends to discourage 
him, and seldom does he fully recover from the disaster. 

The emigrant should not be in too great a hurry to r-et 
settled. Although it is desirable that he get a home as 
early as practicable, and begin his arduous labors, it is 
poor policy to purchase without much consideration. It 
is of the very highest importance that he see the land 
BEFORE ruRCHASiNG IT. On this point we cannot be too 
1* 



10 THE FARMER S AND 

urgent. As a general rule, it is utterly unsafe to buy 
land on the strength of a glowing advertisement, or the 
representations of ordinary land-agents. There are most 
honorable exceptions to this rule, of course, but they are 
few. We repeat, buy no land until you have seen and 
carefully examined it. 

Before giving a few hints, which the purchaser will find 
useful in deciding upon the quality of land, it may be 
well to notice a few points which should claim his atten- 
tion. In " The Emigrant's True Guide," we took occa- 
sion to discuss this at some length ; but as that book may 
not have fallen into the hands of the reader, we will again 
briefly refer to it. 

The very first inquiry should be concerning the health- 
fulness of the proposed purchase. If it be in a notoriously 
unhealthy region, utterly refuse to have anything to do 
with it. Of what avail will be rich land, abundant har- 
vests, numerous flocks and herds, if, with them all, there 
is a constant liability to bilious and other diseases, which 
prevail in certain localities ? A bare subsistence, with 
ruddy health, is far preferable ; and this the emigrant 
will learn by sad experience, if he sit himself down beside 
some sluggish stream, or on some fever-breeding marsh. 
See to it, that the general character of the country for 
health is reasonably good, and that the streams in the 
neighborhood are clear and lively. It cannot be expected 
that the new and rich regions of the West will be as 
healthful as the poorer and better settled ones of the East; 
but with tolerable caution, a pretty healthy location may 
be made. At all events, there is a choice, and the settler 
should bo careful to make it. 

It is also extremely desirable that the settler make his 
location as near a good market as possible. There will 
be less difliculty on this point than a stranger in the 
country might suppose. The numerous rivers, lakes, 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 11 

and canals which are to be found in the various places to 
which the purchaser's attention will be likely to be di- 
rected, render access to markets tolerably convenient. 
In those portions of the country which furnish good sleigh- 
ing (sledding, as it is called in England,) in the winter, 
as in the most northern States and Canada, he will be 
pretty sure of finding a tolerably convenient market, 
wherever he may settle. The winter sleighing is a valu- 
able accommodation, counterbalancing the inconvenience 
of bad summer roads. During the three or four months 
in which the snow lies on the ground, the settler is fur- 
nished with a beautiful natural turnpike, better than any 
macadamized road in the world ; and this occurs at a 
season when he has abundant leisure to take his produce 
to market, and to visit his friends at a distance. A merry 
matter is this sleighing, to say nothing of its usefulness. 
With the bracing cold of a settled winter, a clear blue 
sky, and the face of the ground covered with a mantle of 
the purest white, the settlers enjoy their heaven-made 
turnpike with great zest. The cheerful bells resound 
through forest and field, and the once dreaded winter is 
rather desired than disliked. But to return from this 
digression. 

It is important, also, in making choice of a location, to 
have an eye to the convenience of churches, schools, 
medical men, a post-office, and the like. All these things 
are very desirable, and to secure them it were better to 
take up with a less quantity of land, or that of a poorer 
quality. Let the settler make particular inquiries on 
these points. It will not be difficult to find locations with 
all these advantages ; but as land may be offered where 
they do not exist, it is well that proper inquiries be made. 
The reader should not take it for granted, that they are 
to be found in every place to which his attention may be 
directed. 



12 THE farmer's and 

The convenience of a grist-mill should not be over- 
looked. We have known of very g-reat hardships endured 
in some regions, from the want of means of getting bread- 
stuffs properly ground. It will be well to make particular 
inquiries on this point before purchasing. 

In short, let the settler consider the various conveniences 
which will render his life, and that of his children, com- 
fortable ; and in the outset secure as many of them as he 
can. It is far better to buy a small quantity of land with 
good advantages, than a large quantity without them. 
Your children will need instruction, and you should not 
place yourself beyond the reach of schools, or the pros- 
pect of schools at an early day ; the time of sickness will 
come, and you will want medical attendance ; the hour 
of mourning and serious reflection may arrive, and the 
consolations of religion from the lips of the Christian min- 
ister will be truly welcome. See, therefore, that there be 
a reasonable prospect of having all these things at no 
distant day in your new home. It is hard enough to bear 
the burdens of the pioneer settler, even under the best of 
circumstances. Be careful to get all the comforts you 
can at first. 

The quality of wild land may be judged of by the fol- 
lowing general rules. 

In the New-England States, in the State of New-York, 
the principal part of Ohio and Michigan, in Canada, and 
indeed throughout the northerly portions of America, land 
5vhich is timhered should have growing upon it tall and 
strong /iar^Z limber, such as maple, elm, beach, bass-wood, 
cherry, hickory, white-ash, butternut, and the like. If 
the land on which any of these kinds of limber is found, 
be dry, (as it usually is,) it is good. The trees should, as 
a general rule, be tall, and branching only near the lop. 
A large hemlock occasionally among the timber, is no 



TiiK emigrant's hand-book. 13 

bad sign. Land which bears the timber, we have now 
named, or some kinds of it, is sure to be good. 

If the trees be low in size, and scraggy, the soil is clayey 
and cold, and inclined to be too wet for cultivation. The 
trees which grow on wet and swampy lands are the oak, 
pine, hemlock, tamarack, black-ash and cedar ; but the 
pine and hemlock are often found on dry soil, and so is 
the oak. 

Some people judge by the surface of the land also. This 
is not always a safe criterion. If the land appears un- 
even, rising into little knolls or knobs, they reject it, think- 
ing that the knolls are caused by rocks and large stones 
beneath the surface. This is not right. In Canada and 
various portions of the States, the old settlers do not reject 
a piece of land because of its uneven surface. Quite the 
contrary ; for they know that the more uneven the land 
appears with these small heights and hollows, the better 
the soil probably is. We have known really sagacious 
purchasers to take a small iron rod, a ramrod for instance, 
into the woods with them, and run the rod into the knobs 
and knolls, to ascertain what they were composed of. 
This is a good plan. The end of the rod should be sharp- 
ened. By this means you can tell whether the subsoil 
be clayey or the reverse, which you could not otherwise so 
readily determine, as the top of all soils is usually covered 
with the black mould of decayed vegetable matter. 

A lot of land should not be rejected, if a corner of it, 
even fifteen acres, is covered with black-ash, pine, or 
cedar. For fencing the cleared fields, black-ash and 
cedar are invaluable. For boards and shingles, the pine 
is of great value. 

The quality of prairie land is so easily known by the 
eye, and is so universally good, that but few words need 
be said on the subject. It should be dry, clear land, of a 
deep rich soil, and as near as possible to timber-land ; say 



14 THE farmer's and 

from one to three miles distant, or nearer, if practicable- 
It is of importance that you get within a reasonable dis- 
tance of a supply of timber ; it is of much less import- 
ance, however, than it was before the introduction of the 
Pise mode of building houses and fences, an account of 
which may be found in another chapter. 

It is of great importance that the settler do not purchase 
too much land ; especially if he take it on credit. On this 
point we cannot be too urgent. Many is the man who 
has been ruined by not being careful in this particular. 
Land-holders and land-agents are too apt to induce the 
purchaser to buy too freely ; especially if the latter make 
a pretty good down-payment. An instance in point occurs 
to the writer. 

A man once came into the land-office of which the 
writer then had charge, to " take up " a piece of land, as 
it is called. He was considerably advanced in life, 
say past fifty ; and bore marks of having done much hard 
work, and of having passed through many trials. " I 
have come, sir," said he, " to take up a. piece of land. 
Though I am almost an old man, I am going to begin life 
again. I am poor, and have a large family, but we are 
all willing to work." 

" Happy, happy to see you," said the land agent, in 
somewhat of a cheering, earnest way ; " you are just the 
kind of settlers we want. Our land is good, and there's 
plenty of it ; and the more children you have, the better 
off you are. But why are you so poor ? You say you 
are willing to work." 

" Why, sir," he replied, " I have had a great deal of 
sickness in my family, that is one reason ; but the prin- 
cipal one is, that I took up too much land when I made a 
beginning. The landholder, knowing I was a hearty man, 
and that I had a little money to pay down, prevailed on 
me to take up three hundred acres, when I should have 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK 15 

taken but sixty or seventy. The consequence was, that 
after working hard upon it for a few years, clearing some 
fifty or sixty acres, and making other improvements, I 
found I could not support my family, keep down the inte- 
rest of what was due, and make the regular payments on 
the purchase. I was discouraged. The landholder might 
take away all I had whenever he should choose ; indeed, 
I was literally his bondman. I felt that I might be taken 
sick or die at any time, and leave my family in distress. 
I have, therefore, sold out my betterments, and am now 
ready to begin again." 

Here was a man, who had worked hard and eaten the 
bread of carefulness, but whose ill success was occasioned 
solely by having taken up too large a farm at the outset. 

It is usually the custom, for private landholders to re- 
quire one-fourth or one-fifth of the purchase- money down, 
and the balance in four or five equal annual payments ; 
the interest on the amount due to be paid every year. In 
the early history of a settler, it will not be easy to get 
ready money ; and it will make a very great difference 
whether he has to pay the interest on three hundred acres, 
or on seventy. Besides this, a small farm well cultivated 
is better than a large one poorly tilled. A man can do 
but about a given amount of work, and he had better be- 
stow all he can on a moderate sized farm. We have had 
the very best opportunities of understanding this subject, 
and we earnestly advise the reader to be moderate in his 
purchase of land. In all our experience, we have scarce- 
ly ever found an individual who could manage to pay for 
and clear over a hundred acres ; the majority are not 
safe in contracting for more, nor, indeed, for so much. 

Some landholders are sufficiently mindful of the inter- 
ests of their settlers, to reserve small pieces of land, thirty 
to fifty acres perhaps, in the rear or by the side of the 
first purchase ; and, after a little time, both parties can 



16 THE FARMER S AND 

see whether it is prudent to enlarge the farm. By this 
means the settler is not encumbered with too much land, 
nor disheartened by large interest-money. It is true, 
that the landholder's interest account is not so large as it 
otherwise might be ; but in the first stages of a settlement, 
it IS of far greater importance to have the settlers succeed, 
than it is to have the land-owner's interest account large. 
The sooner the settlers get deeds of their land, the better 
for all parties. 

Having entered into contract for such a quantity of 
land as you have reason to believe you can pay for, have 
it surveyed. Do not omit this. You will thus avoid any 
trouble that might otherwise occur. 

If your land be timhered, in the State of New- York or 
Pennsylvania, Maine, Ohio, some parts of Michigan, and 
so forth, the following arficles will be required to do jus- 
tice to your clearing. The estimate is made for JefTerson 
county, in the State of New-York, and will vary some- 
what, though not very materially, in other places. 

ARTICLES NECESSARY FOR A NEW SETTLER. 

One span of horses, say ,,...$100 00 

One yoke of oxen 50 00 

One double wagon 50 00 

One superior plough.... 10 00 

One drag 5 00 

One spade, shovel, and hoe 2 50 

Two log chains 8 00 

One cradle, scythe, and snath 7 00 

One axe 2 00 

Two augers — half-inch and inch 1 00 

One saw 1 00 

Two chisels 75 

Rake and pitchfork 1 00 

One hammer and 10 lbs. of nails 1 25 

Oift cow 15 00 

$254 50 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 17 

The average price of clearing land in the places named, 
may be set down at about ten dollars the acre, including 
the common Virginia fence, which is a very good fence 
for a new country. Persons can always be found who 
will contract at this price. 

The next thing to be done, is to build some sort of a 
dwelling. The log shanty is usually the first a settler 
builds. It is an exceedingly comfortable dwelling, cool 
in. summer and warm in winter ; and if whitewashed 
every year, and clambering vines made to run over it, it 
is a very pretty one. It is speedily built, and if neces- 
sary, the settler can build it all himself. In another por- 
tion of this book, full instructions will be found, on the 
manner of building shanties, log-houses, farm- cottages, 
barns, fences, and the like. By turning to the table of 
contents, the reader will find where to look for the in- 
formation. 

Having got up a shanty or a log-house, the next step 
will be that of clearing. The emigrant will now be 
disheartened, perhaps. It will seem a long and dreary 
wbrk to lay the giant forest low, and make of the wild 
land, fruitful fields. But as he proceeds, he will find it 
less difficult than he had supposed. After the lapse of 
two or three years, order will begin to reign, and he will 
be more than satisfied. 

In CLEARING, the first thing is to lay out in as regular 
a shape as possible, the land designed to be cleared the 
first season. A portion of this, say one or two acres, 
should nov/ be uuderbrushed, that is, the small growth of 
wood and bushes all cut up. If there are any old logs 
or trees lying on the piece to be cleared, cut them up in- 
to fifteen-feet lengths. Having thus made clean work of 
the underwood, go to work, and cut down all the trees, 
clean as 3^011 go, with the exception of the rail-timber 
which may be growing on it, such as black and white- 



18 THE farmer's AN0 

asb, bass-wood, and sucb other woods as the country fuR 
nishes for rails. All this should be saved, and cut dowi) 
last and taken care of. 

In clearing, the trees are usually cut down at that dis- 
tance from the ground which is most convenient for the 
man who uses the axe — say about breast-high. 

Having felled the trees, the next step is to cut thenrj 
into logs, of a size convenient to be drawn into piles for 
burning. These logs should be about fifteen feet in 
length — say five paces. Go on with this till all the trees 
you have cut down are chopped into logs.* 

Now cast your eye around, and see where the heaviest 
logs lie, and if these be in tolerably convenient spots, 
make them the centres of different piles. Now, with 
your oxen and log-chains, draw the logs to these piles. 
This is called logging. Now pile up the brush into 
heaps, ready for burning. The log-heaps may be made 
small, if it be a dry time ; if not, they must be large. 
No particular instructions can be given on this po'.nt ; the 
set/tler must be guided by his own judgment, and by the 
example of others. The logs and brush thus piled, take 
occasion of the first dry time to set fire to them. They 
will soon consume, if the weather be at all favorable. 
The appearance of a new country by night, when this is 
going on, is exceedingly picturesque and beautiful. The 
fires light up the surrounding forest with great brilliancy ; 
and one fancies that he is walking amid the aisles of 

* The above is the common way followed in chopping. There is another, and 
that is in "teindroms," which is, by chopping all the trees down, so as the tops are 
thrown together, in r row or strip, the trees being so chopped down, as to cause 
the brush to lie together, in a row, which not being cut, (unless some high branch- 
es, which lie not close) saves trouble in cutting the branches off and piling them. 
This plan is not often followed, however. There is another way also, and that ic 
to make jam heaps, by throwing as many of the tops of the trees together as pos- 
sible, making thus a large brush-heap. This is not a bad plan, if the season is a 
dry one, as these heaps burn off many of the upper and thick branches or limbs of 
the trees, which would otherwise need to be cut by the axe, and logged or haaled 
together. 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 19 

some gorgeous, though unearthly temple. If upon the 
forest leaves there be the drops of a passing shower, or 
of the dew, they glitter in the brilliant light like living 
diamonds. 

And even by day these clearings have a picturesque 
and interesting appearance. When the air is still, and 
the blue column of smoke rises like a tall fairy shaft, up 
to the heavens, contrasting with their deeper blue ; it 
seems as if it were a monument of praise to the noble pio- 
neers who are thus willing to bear the heat and burden 
of the day. Though it be a digression from the practical 
work we have in hand, and the critic may deem it an 
offence against good taste, we must be allowed to say, 
that in the rude forest life of which we treat, there is 
much of real romance. Often have we enjoyed it, with 
a joy not equalled by that experienced in other scenes. 
Look at the forester, on the Sabbath, if you please. He 
has well kept the command, " six days shall thou lahor,^^ 
and he rises to enjoy the day of rest, deeming it indeed a 
blessing. The church-going bell is not heard within his 
wild domain, nor organ, nor anthem, nor choir. But 
there is music in the deep silence. He wanders a little 
way from his dwelling, and sits him down beneath the 
verdant canopy of leaves. Up above all, through the 
fretted roof of branches, he sees the deep blue of the 
heaven of worlds, emblem of the divine purity. He 
hears a sound — 'tis but the clear trill of the Phebe-bird, 
perhaps, or the rich love-note of the robin. The leaves 
tremble in the light breeze, with a voice sweeter and 
softer than the tones of the wind-harp : 

" Unearthly minstrelsy ! then only hearcf, 
W^hen the soul 3eeks to hear ; when all is hushed, 
And the heart listens." 

The forester is, indeed, in a temple not made with 
hands, and his worship may be paid to Him who seeth 
in secret, and rewardeth openly. 



20 THE farmer's and 

But to return to our soberer work. 

The system of clearing by slashing, as it is termed, is 
not a good one. By all means avoid it. Girdling trees, 
leaving them to decay of themselves, and after they have 
fallen to burn them, is another poor way of clearing. It 
is practiced, however, in many places, and has its advo- 
cates. 

Having burnt the logs and brush on the land, the ashes 
that remain should be made into '■'^ Black Salts,^'' (if there 
be a good quantity.) By turning to the article entitled 
" Black Salts,''' the reader will learn the process. An 
acre of well timbered land will furnish from seventy-five 
to one hundred and fifty bushels of ashes. Every four 
hundred bushels of ashes will make a ton of potash or 
pearl ash. 

The land should now be fenced into ten-acre lots, with 
a fence seven rails in height. The article, " Fences,'' 
in this book, will give the necessary information on this 
point. 

When the land is fenced, it is ready for sowing. In 
September, sow one and a quarter (or half) bushels of 
wheat to the acre. " Drag " it in with the harrow, and 
cross-drag it, so as to be sure that it is well covered. A 
good workman will take a peck-axe, and peck the land 
around the stumps, and see that it is thoroughly seeded. 
The land is now in a fair way to yield a good crop the next 
season. Early in the following spring, sow on the same 
land, in among the wheat, four quarts of grass seed, cither 
herds'-grass or timothy, to the acre. After the wheat is 
harvested, this grass will become meadow, in which state 
it should lie tiH the roots of the stumps shall have rotted, 
so as to enable you to plough the land, which will be in 
about five years. 

We have thus traced the process of clearing, sowing, 
and grass-seeding a piece of land. The first spring and 



THE EMIGUAINt's HAND-BOOK. 21 

summer it is cleared ; in the fall wheat is sown on it ; the 
next spring it is put into grass, and the second summer a 
crop of wheat is taken from it, leaving it under grass. 

This process is continued from year to year, until the 
whole farm is brought under cultivation. 

In a year or two the stumps that remain should be set 
fire to, in a dry time in autumn, to hasten their decay. 
If any young twigs shoot out from them, cut them off at 
once. Keep everything tidy; the fences in good order, 
and the greensward from being too much trampled on, 
either by man or beast. 

Mr. Widder, the gentlemanly commissioner of the Ca- 
nada Company, in Toronto, has politely furnished us with 
the following estimate of the first three years outlay and 
income of a settler in Canada West. It will be valuable 
for those removing to that beautiful province ; 

Cost of clearing 10 acres of heavy timbered land, in the usual Ca- 
nadian fashion, with an estimate of the crops to be produced therefrom 
during the first three years after clearing : 



first year. 
Dr. 



£ s. d. £ s. 



Chopping, clearing, and fencing 10 acres, so as 

to leave it fit for the drag, at £4 per acre 40 

Seed, 1^ bushels wheat to the acre, say 15 bush- 
els, at 5s 3 15 

Sowing and dragging, at 5s. per acre 2 10 

Harvesting, at 7s. 6d. per acre 3 15 

The value of the straw, tailing, wheat hulls, etc. 
on the farm, are supposed to be equal to the 
threshing and cartage to the barn. 

To timothy and clover seed, at 2s. 6d. per acre, 3 5 

Cr. 
By 20 bushels wheat per acre — 260 bushels, at 
3s. 9d 37 10 



2'i THE FARMER^S AND 

second year. 

Dr. 

£ s. d. £ s. d. 
To mowing and taking off hay, at 7s. 6d. per 

acre 3 15 

Cr. 
By li ton per acre of hay, at 6 dollars per ton... 22 10 

third year. 
Dr. 
To mowing and taking off the hay, at 7s. 6d. per 

acre 3 15 

Cr. 
By IJ ton per acre of hay, at 6 dollars per ton, 22 10 

82 10 60 15 
Balance in clear profit 21 15 

je82 10 82 10 



CHAPTER II. 

PRAIRIE FARMING. 

In the previous chapter, we have traced, as best we 
could, the earlier stages of a settler on the timbered lands 
of the Northern States and Canada. Let us now turn our 
attentiofi to prairie farmings in its beginning, and in a 
small way. 

For much of the material of which this chapter is com- 
posed, we are indebted to that most capital writer, Solon 
Robinson, of Indiana. Our own observations had not 
been much directed to prairie lands, and prairie modes of 
farming ; but the great experience and really able pen 
of Mr. Robinson, have abundantly supplied what we 
lacked. 

We shall use much of Mr. Robinson's language for a 
few pages. 

It will be observed, that the advice in this chapter is 
intended for the emigrant of very moderate means. Those 
of larger means will find valuable hints in other portions 
of this book. By turning to the article entitled ^^ Prairie 
Miscellany, ^^ they may be found. 

Such articles as you wish to have in your new home, 
you will pack up in boxes or barrels, (the latter the best,) 
strongly hooped and plainly directed, and ship to the 
nearest port of your intended location. The best month 



24 THE farmer's and 

tD Start is June. Such articles of furniture as chairs 
tables, bedsteads, bureaus^ stoves, and other bulky arti- 
cles, you had better sell than ship — particularly if your 
new home will be in the country within reach of water- 
carria^^G ; for at most lake towns, such articles can be 
bought at reasonable prices. So. can ploughs, at prices 
from 86 to $15 — wagons, $60 to 880 — double harness, 
$14 to 820 — log-chains, 10 to 12 cts. a pound — scythe 
and snath, 81 50 — rakes, 18 cts. — pitchforks, 50 to 75 cts. 
— shovels and spades, 75 cts. to 81 50 — axes, 81 00 to 
^1 50 — hoes, 37 to 75 cts. ; and other farming tools in 
proportion. 

- The emigrant should not pay freight on horses and 
cattle, or upon hogs and sheep ; for his team he can buy 
in the West cheaper than he can at the East, ||nd im- 
proved stock he does not want to begin with. Beds and 
bedding he should never sell, and he may as well take 
an extra stock of clothing of all kinds, except " finery ;" 
a snug little bookcase well filled ; together with "Town's 
Spelling Book," and " Webster's Dictionary ;" a slate for 
each of the children, and a receipt for the subscription of 
at least two agricultural and miscellaneous papers for 
two years ;* and thus equipped, he will be prepared to 
begin life in the West. 

Having arrived, we will suppose you possessed of your 
team, and a few of the most necessary farming tools, 
hoJsehold furniture, and jiist money enough " to keep the 
wolf away from the door;" with a part of this you must 
purchase a cow and some provisions to begin with, and of 
course rent an improved place for a year or two, which 
you can do for a third of the crop, or for about one dollar 
an acre for the tillable land. After putting in a crop of 
wheat the first fall, you will find employment for your- 

* The "New World," of course. 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 25 

self and team during the winter. And upon the prairie 
soil, you would soon grow rich raising wheat, even at 
50 cts. a bushel, if it were a certain crop ; but as we are 
intending to write truth, we must say that we do not think 
it is. It is liable to winter-kill by heaving, and to rust ; 
and this year, (1844,) some early wheat is injured by the 
frost of May 21st, and the Hessian fly has made its ap- 
pearance in the West, besides another danger in the shape 
of the " army worm." Spring wheat, buckwheat, oats, 
barley, potatoes, turnips, peas, grass, and garden vege- 
tables generally, may be counted upon as certain and 
good crops. Cattle and sheep fatten and winter well 
upon prairie hay, and cows are profitable for butter and 
cheese.'* The prices of good common farm horses, say in 
Illinois and Indiana, is about $50 to $60 ; four-year-old 
working oxen, $35 a yoke ; cows, $8 to $12 ; yearlings, 
$3 to $4; two-year-old, $6 to $7; sheep, $1 to $1 25; 
hogs plenty and cheap. 

Again, we will suppose you arrive with ^200, exclusive 
of the other necessaries above mentioned. A small capi- 
tal, you say, with which to buy a new farm, and com. 
mence farming in a new country. True ; but many a 
man in the West is now comparatively rich, who com- 
menced with a less sum. All that is wanted is courage 
and industry — some would say luck, but luck almost 
always follows industry. Well, you wish to know how 
to begin in this small way. We will tell you. United 
States public land is $1 25 an acre, and thousands of 
acres are subject to entry upon all the western prairies, of a 
most excellent soil. You arrive the first of July, and are 
determined to become an owner of the land you cultivate. 
You find a region of country, the appearance of which 
suits you. First get your family temporarily into some 
vacant house, and then try to buy a small improved place 
2 



26 

within your means, which you can often do, as all new 
countries are first improved by an uneasy, roving class, 
ever ready to " sell out " and go to some other part of the 
country, " a little farther west," or perhaps " begin a new 
place " in the same neighborhood, and which in turn will 
be again for sale. In fact, this is the common way of 
settling a new country. So you need not be surprised to 
find the whole population ready to sell their new home 
before a long residence attaches them to it. The " sell- 
ing out fever " is a mania, but a very harmless one ; you 
need not fear it. But if you cannot buy an old place, 
then you must make a new one. " What !" you exclaim, 
" buy land, build a house, fence and plough a farm, with 
$200? Pray, tell me how." We will. 

First, then, you cannot buy loss than forty acres of 
public land. Let this be dry, clean prairie, which will 
be perhaps from one to three miles from timber. This 
will cost $50, besides a little expense of going to the land- 
office, wliich in some districts may be a hundred miles. 
Now, you must have some timber land. The price of 
this will vary in different sections of the country, it being: 
in the hands of private individuals generally ; but where: 
timber is plenty enough to make it advisable to settle, it! 
can be bought for $5 an acre. Five acres of good white 
oak timber, will be sufficient for the forty acres of prairie, 
and will take up $25 more of the capital. 

Now for a house. Forty logs, eighteen feet long, ten 
inches diameter, slightly hewed on two sides, notched or 
hewed together at the corners, will form the walls- 
Seven smaller sticks, hewed on one side, will make thei 
sleepers of the floor, and the same number for the joists 
of the chamber floor ; as ten logs high will allow of havingi 
a low chamber that will answer for beds. The rafters 
can be made of straight rails, and may be boarded anc 



THE EMIGRANTS HAND-BOOK. 27 

shingled, or, with less expense, have smaller rails nailed 
on for ribs, and covered with split clap-boards or strakes, 
three feet long and six inches wide : four hundred will 
make the roof, and they are worth, if -bought, not over 
$2 50. The gable-end may be studded and sided up 
with logs — the boarding is preferable. A front and back 
door, and two twelve light 8x10 glass windows, are to be 
cut out of the logs, and a space for the chimney, the 
whole of which will be built on the outside to save room. 
The ends of the logs, when cut off, are secured in their 
places by a board or piece of split stuff*, pinned or nailed 
on. 

If the country is new, and destitute of brick or stone for 
a chimney, yet one must be built. This is done by first 
making a rough frame of split stuff, on the outside of the 
fire-place, which is to remain ; and on the inside a tempo, 
rary frame of boards is put up, just the size of the contem- 
plated fire-place. Then this space is rammed full of 
slightly moistened clay, and a wooden mantle laid across, 
and the funnel of the chfmney built out with sticks and 
clay ; then the inside boarding of the fire-place is taken 
out, and the hearth made of pounded clay, audit is ready 
for use, and will last many years. 

If in a country of saw-mills, you will procure boards 
for the floors and doors, otherwise they must be made of 
split stuff. 

The spaces between the logs are filled with " chink- 
ing," that is, pieces of rails, and blocks, and split stuff, 
and then the whole well " daubed " with clay mortar in 
all the cracks, outside and in. A small shed should be 
built over the back-door, to keep the pots and kettles dry. 
This house can be built, finished, and ready to move into, 
for the following expense : 



28 THE FARMER S AND 

Cutting, hewing, and hauling timber 4 days' work. 

Raising, (mostly done by neighbors) say 1 do. 

Putting on roof and gable-ends 2 do. 

Cutting out doors, windows, and place for fire-place, 

and casing doors and windows, and making doors.... 4 do. 

Laying floors and making a ladder to chamber 3 do. 

Chinking and daubing 3 do. 

Building chimney 3 do. 

In all 20 days. 

Now, the cash out will be, for ten days' work hired ^5 

1000 ft. of lumber for floors, etc 10 

20 lbs. of nails 1 

30 lights sash and glass, (1 six Ught for chamber) 1 87 

2 pair butts and screws, (use wooden latches) 25 

400 split clapboards for the roof 2 50 

Total * PO 62 

But we will add for contingencies, which will make even money, 4 38 

Making $25 00 

Some of the packing-boxes, in which come your things, 
with the lid hinged with bits of leather, and some shelves 
put in, will make some good closets for a corner of the 
" new house " — and if you have a jack-plane and augers, 
which every emigrant should liave, you can make some 
coarse bedsteads, upon which you will sleep more soundly, 
and a table or two, upon which you will eat with a better 
appetite, than those do who eat from a table that costs more 
than yours, house and all. 

We have allowed ten days after you have fixed upon 
your location, to build your house an-d move into it ; but 
it would be better to have more hands, and complete it in 
less time. In the meantime, if not too late in the season 
(which should not be later at any rate than thf middle of 
August.) you may hire twenty acres of prairie broken u; 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 29 

which will cost from $1 50 to ^2 an acre, owing to the 
lifferent prices of labor in different parts of the country, 
rather than to a difference in the quality of the breaking ; 
though the best of it cannot be done to good advantage with 
less than three stout yoke of oxen, and generally four yoke 
are used — so that it is generally better for the poor set- 
tler to hire his breaking done by the acre, than to attempt 
it with an inefficient team. The depth of breaking varies 
from two to eight inches ; and it is still a mooted point 
what depth is the best — our own opinion is four inches. 

The breaking of this twenty acres, put down at $30 — 
and fifteen bushels of wheat with which to sow ten acres, 
at 50 cents a bushel, $7 50. This will take about a 
week to put in as it should be, for the sod is very hard, 
and needs a great deal of harrowing ; and as you have 
been on the prairie so short a time, that you have not 
been able to get a harrow of your own, we will excuse 
you for borrowing one — though an eternal borrower is 
but little better than a thief in a neighborhood. 

Having sowed the wheat, you have necessarily to trust 
it to Providence, unfenced, as you cannot fence it at pres- 
ent, and we have known many a first rate crop raised in 
the same way, even in thick settled neighborhoods. 

Your next step is to cut a good supply of hay for the 
cow and team for a five months' winter. And then a tem- 
porary stable you can build in this manner : Lay up a pen 
of rails double, that is, two courses all round, except a 
door-way at one corner, where the ends of the rails are 
secured in their places by short cross ties, and fill in the 
space between the two courses of rails — which should be 
at least a foot — with wet hay, and dirt, and sods, and trash, 
that will make a perfect tight, warm wall ; and over the 
top lay poles, and build a small stack of hay of the coarsest 
grass, which will shed rain and serve you for a good sta- 



*^'' 



30 THE farmer's and 

blo a couple of years. There should, however. De a iiiue 
ditch dug around the outside to take off the water ; the dirt 
being thrown inside will raise the ground, so as always to 
keep a dry and better floor than a plank one. 

All this, you see, is done with your own labor, or by 
exchanging a day or two of work with a neighbor. 

You will, of course, extend the size or number of the 
pens, to suit the number of animals to be stabled, and also 
an extra room to hold the harness, grain, tools, etc. etc. 

You will see the necessity, also, of putting up as soon 
as possible, a small room adjoining the house, which may 
be made of straight rails and covered with' strakes ; all of 
which can be done with three days' work, and will serve 
for a very good store-room for flour, meal, meat, potatoes, 
etc., except the latter, which must be holed up for winter ; 
a few bushels, however, can be kept under the floor next 
the hearth, for daily use during cold weather, and in some 
winters they will keep in a bag in the same room where 
you live. 

We have now brought you, step by step, into winter- 
quarters. You will observe that we have used up $137 50 
of your $200 cash capital, and as it is desirable that you 
keep entirely free of debt, we will leave the balance for 
your support until your land produces something for you, 
and right well must you husband it. Perhaps you had 
better give the purse to youf wife, for if she is the right 
sort of a woman, she will housewife it better than you 
will husband it — and above all things, do n't let a soul 
know how much money you liave got ; and as you pay 
cash for everything you buy, people will imagine that you 
have an abundance, and will practice upon the principle 
that to him that has, more shall be given, and from him 
that has not, or but little, that little shall be taken 
away. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 31 

You will now proceed to fence the twenty acres you. 
have broken up. Counting two panels of ten-feet rails 
to the rod, which is hardly crooked enough, but will an- 
swer, it will take four thousand eight hundred — say five 
thousand rails and stakes ; and an addition of sixteen 
hundred more will fence the whole forty acres, making 
six thousand four hundred ; and about six hundred more 
for the necessary yards around the house and stable, ma- 
king seven thousand in all — which if you will get out in 
the course of the winter, and get up a good supply of 
wood, besides your other necessary work, you may be 
set down for an industrious man. But by exchanging 
your team work for manual labor, you can accomplish 
it, so that the spring finds you in possession of forty 
acres of prairie land, well fenced, ten of it in wheat and 
ten ready for a spring crop, a comfortable dwelling, and 
stable and yards, etc. Now let us proceed. It is possi- 
ble your wheat is winter killed — then sow the whole with 
spring wheat, and harrow it in as early as possible — but 
if not killed, then sow two acres of the other ten, in 
spring wheat ; seven in oats, and the other acre for 
a " truck patch," — the spot intended for a garden, being 
planted in potatoes this year, as best calculated to mellow 
the ground. 

Previous to the tenth of June, get two more acres broke 
up and sow it in buckwheat ; and if you find yourself 
able, get eight acres more broken up for wheat this year, 
not more. Do not undertake too much, remember that ; but 
keep doing, and in time you will accomplish wonders. 

This fall you will be able to plough the old ground 
for a spring crop of wheat, oats and corn. Put all the 
manure on the garden spot. Cut more hay, and get a 
few calves, and half a-dozen sheep, and in time you will 
have a large stock, and a large farm, and build a new 



32 THE farmer's and 

house, and be very glad to have us call in some winter 
eveninsf, and talk over all these scenes of the new set- 
tlement on the Western prairie. 

In the foregoing remarks, we have spoken altogether 
of the use of a horse-team, while, at the same time, we 
would recommend to the emigrants who arrive without 
a team, to buy oxen in preference, as being the cheapest 
at first cost, and altogether the most economical, for the 
man of small means. So, also, we would recommend, 
if you go on with a horse-team, and little money, that 
the horses be sold, and a yoke or two of oxen furnished. 
The average price we have previously stated. You see 
that we do not recommend much Indian corn for the first 
crop, because it is difficult planting — that being done by 
cutting a hole through the sod, and it admitting of little or 
no after culture, the crop is light, seldom reaching twenty 
bushels to the acre — (in Indiana.) Neither is it profitable 
to sow grass seed, until after the sod is well rotted. 

We have now only spoken of a cheap log-cabin and 
the cost. Estimates of the cost of other houses are else- 
where given. 

The wealthy class of emigrants will always find 
plenty of improved farms for sale, cheaper than they can 
make the improvements. We have given the reason, 
the restless disposition of all pioneers in a new country. 
And this restless disposition is not altogether acquired 
here. The emigrants bring it with them ; and when they 
arrive in a really good country, they are not satisfied to 
settle down, lest there might be a better place a little far- 
ther toward the setting sun ; and like that, they are ever 
rolling westward. The Pacific Ocean will perhaps prove 
a barrier — nothing short of it : for it is already proven, 
that the great wilderness and prairies between this and 
that, are insufficient to stop the onward rolling wave. 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 



In the foregoing estimate we have omitted the cost of a 
well, which is one of the most important items in the com- 
fort of a family. The average depth of wells on the 
prairies is about twenty-five feet ; and the cost may be 
set down, for one properly bricked up and curbed, at 
about one dollar the foot. Some persons use the water 
from streams and ponds, but it is not a good plan. The 
sooner the settler gets a well the better. Rarn- water, per- 
fectly filtered, is healthy and agreeable. 
8* 



CHAPTER III. 

ON THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF A FARM. 

The following article from the pen of a distinguished 
farmer of central New- York, is admirably calculated foi* 
the study of a farmer of moderate means. It is written 
in a simple, clear style, and may be depended on for its 
accuracy. We copy it from the published transactions of 
the New- York State Agricultural Society for 1843. 

In writing on this subject, we shall divide it in the fol- 
lowing order : 

Firstly — What proportion of the farm it is proper to 
preserve uncleared of wood. 

Secondly — The proper division of the cleared land into 
fields, size of fields, manner of fencing, etc. 

Thirdly — The proper improvement of the soil, which 
will include draining, manuring, etc. 

Fourthly — The cultivation of various kinds of crops. 

Fifthly — Seeding of land with grass seeds. 

Sixthly — Raising domestic animals. 

Seventhly — Necessity of barns and sheds sufficient to 
store all crops, and protect domestic animals from the in- 
clemency of the weather. 

Firstly — What 'proportion of the farm it is proper to pre- 
serve uncleared of wood. 
This will depend some on the number of fires which 
must be supported j more on the kinds of timber which 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 35 

grow on the land, but mostly on the materials used for 
fencing. For if but one fire is needed, the growth of 
wood on a small number of acres will be sufficient to sup- 
ply the requisite quantity of fuel ; so also if the timber is 
of a durable kind, a much less quantity will be sufficient 
to keep the fences in repair than would otherwise be 
needed. The location of the farm should also be con- 
sidered, for if it is located in the immediate vicinity of a 
good market for wood, economy could dictate that a larger 
proportion of woodland would be profitable than under 
other circumstances. If portions of the farm are unsuited 
to tillage, it may be profitable to allow such portions to 
remain in wood. But where all land is suitable for til- 
lage, v/here the materials for fencing are not very perish- 
able in their nature, and but one fire is generally needed, 
a proportion of 15 or 20 per cent, in quantity on a farm 
containing from 100 to 200 acres, is sufficient to remain 
in timber. 

Secondly — The proper division of the cleared land into 
fields, the materials out of which those divisions are made, 
and the manner of making them. 

The size of the fields should depend much on the size 
of the farm, the purposes for which the fields will gene- 
rally be used, and the expense of fencing ; but we believe 
that little danger need be apprehended from the two small 
size of fields, especially for pasturage. 

The shape of the fields, for obvious reasons, should be 
as near square as the surface and places for watering will 
permit ; and if any field or portion of a field should be 
too wet for tillage, let it be drained according to directions 
v/hich will be hereafter given. 

The materials for fences will depend much on circum- 
stances. Where stones of suitable size and shape can be 



as 

obtained cheaply, and within a reasonable distance, they 
are undoubtedly the best, and ultimately the cheapest, 
material out of which a fence can be constructed. Next 
to stones, a fence of cedar posts and hemlock boards is to 
be preferred, because it is durable, neat in appearance, 
occupies but little ground, and is easily kept free from 
weeds. But where stones, or posts and boards cannot be 
easily obtained, and where chestnut and oak rails are 
abundant, and the land cheap, a worm- fence made of 
these is quite durable, and perhaps next to be preferred.. 
Nothing but imperious necessity will cause us to build a 
worm-fence of bass-wood rails ; we believe that ultimately 
they are the most expensive materials commonly used for 
fencing. We have not noticed hedges, for we believe it 
is not yet satisfactorily settled, whether a material has 
been found which is suitable and durable in this latitude ; 
and if such material had been found, we doubt whether 
it would be extensively used, on account of the frequent 
alteration of lines and divisions of farms in this country. 
But of whatever materials the fence is made, or however 
constructed, passes should be left for the team and wagon 
from the highway to each field, and from each field to the 
one adjoining ; so that in no case shall it be necessary to 
do more than to open the gate, or take out the bars, in 
passing from one field to another. 

Thirdly — T/ie proper improvement of the soil, including 
draining, manuring, etc. 

When a due proportion of the farm is cleared of wood, 
and suitably divided and fenced into fields, the first inquiry 
should be, are all of these fields in a condition suitable 
for tillage 1 If, upon examination, any field or part of 
a field is found not to possess the requisite degree of dry- 
ness to render it suitable for tillage crops of any kind, let 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 37 

(he next inquiry be, is this wetness occasioned by springs 
or by surface water? If the former, then carefully ex- 
amine and see where it will be necessary to locate drains, 
to catch the water before it breaks out on the surface. 
If the springs are small, economize closely so as to con- 
centrate as many springs as possible in one ditch ; but if 
the springs are large, there may be danger of getting more 
water in one ditch than it will carry, unless it is made in- 
conveniently large. In this case it may be well to make 
two or more main drains. If any springs exist which 
cannot be brought within the line of the main drain, mark 
a side cut from the main ditch to the spring or wet ground, 
and thus bring it in. Be sure to have a good draft and 
outlet to the main ditch. 

When the work is thus laid out, begin at the outlet, and 
dig a ditch two and a half feet deep, as the line of the 
ditch is laid out. The width of the ditch must depend 
upon the size of the stones which will be used for filling, 
large stones requiring a wider ditch than smaller ones. 
Our practice is to cut fourteen inches broad on the sur- 
face, and the bottom sufficiently wide to permit the free 
use of the common farm shovel. The stones should be 
drawn and placed in a row along the bank of the ditch, 
on the side opposite the one on which the earth is thrown; 
the largest stones lying nearest the ditch. The filling in 
of stones should commence at the upper end of the ditch. 
After removing all loose earth, place a row of stones on 
each side on the bottom of the ditch, and cap with another, 
leaving a tunnel proportioned in size to the quantity of 
water which will need to flow through. A four-inch 
tunnel is generally sufficient. On the top, and around 
these cap-stones, place smaller stones until within twelve 
mches of the earth: place a slight sprinkling of straw on 
the stones to prevent the earth from falling among them, 
and with the plough carefully fill the ditch. 



38 

If, on examination, it is found that the wetness proceeds 
from water which falls upon the surface, and, in conse- 
quence of a hard retentive subsoil, remains near the sur- 
face until evaporated, it will be necessary to dig a ditch 
(as before described) along the lower side of the field, as 
a receiver for the ditches, which we are about to describe, 
to empty into. Then, at right angles with this, make 
drains (in the same manner) parallel to each other, if the 
surface of the ground will permit, all emptying into the 
first. The distance from one drain to another must de- 
pend on the subsoil.. If that is very stiff, twenty feet will 
be proper. But, if the subsoil is more porous, the dis- 
tance may be thirty feet. It is believed that a thorough 
use of the subsoil plough will render the subsoil so porous, 
that thirty feet will be sufficiently near in most cases. 

In draining, le sure to make the land dry, and fear not 
the result. This may be objected to, on account of the 
expense ; and some may think it will prove an unprofit- 
able outlay of capital. But it should bg remembered, 
that earth continually saturated with water is worth no- 
thing except for grass, and that is generally- small in 
quantity, and always poor in quality. We know a person 
who has had some experience in reclaiming land by 
draining, and, with his permission, we shall now proceed 
to give you a statement of facts concerning the condition 
of a piece of ground previous to draining ; the cost of 
draining ; the tillage it has since received, and the crops 
which it has produced. 

The field, when the operation of draining was com- 
menced in 1837, contained seven and a half acres, which, 
previous to that, had never been ploughed ; was so wet 
as to be useless, except for pasturage ; and on almost 
one-half of it the grass was wild, coarse water-grass, 
which no animal would eat, except for a shoi:t time in the 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 39 

spring; the soil, a sandy loam, resting on a stratum of 
gravel and pebbles cemented together by clay. On 
many parts of this field springs broke out, which leached 
over the ground, mostly between the soil and subsoil, and 
rendered it so wet that in the early part of spring, a little 
exertion of a man when standing on it would shake the 
earth for yards around. To reclaim this field, 200 rods 
of stone under-drain were made, at an expense of about 
fifty cents per rod. The ditch was cut too wide, conse- 
quently it cost more to dig and fill it than it otherwise 
would. In other respects it was made according to the 
preceding directions. 

In the spring of 18.38, the field received one ploughing; 
four acres were sown with barley, (they should have 
been planted ;) two acres were planted with potatoes, 
half an acre* with corn, and one acre ploughed a second 
time and planted with rutabaga — all without manure. 
The produce of this first year was about 100 bushels of 
barley, 600 bushels of potatoes, 20 bushels of corn, and 
600 bushels of rutabaga. In the spring of 1839 the field 
was once ploughed, and seven acres sown with Italian 
spring wheat, and the remaining half acre with Whit- 
tington wheat. The latter proved a total failure, as it 
proved to be a variety of winter instead of spring wheat, 
as was supposed. The Italian grew large, lodged badly, 
and shrunk ; yielded 15 bushels per acre. In the spring 
of 1840, the field was covered with wheat straw, and then 
carefully ploughed and harrowed, and planted with corn, 
excepting three rows of potatoes around the piece. The 
corn produced 65 and the potatoes 250 bushels per acre. 
In the spring of 1841, by the alteration of an adjoining 
field, one-half an acre was added to this. The field was 
then ploughed once, and four acres sown with peas, and 
the other four acres with barley. The peas and barley 



40 THE farmer's and 

each yielded a trifle more than 30 bushels per acre. 
After they were harvested, the field received one plough- 
ing, and was sown with winter wheat. The wheat stood 
well, grew finely, and promised fair for a good yield ; 
but, like most of the wheat in this section, it was blighted 
with rust, and produced perhaps about 10 bushels per 
acre. In the month of April last, 48 quarts of clover 
seed, and the same quantity of timothy seed, were sown 
on the field. In the month of May, plaster was sown at 
the rate of two bushels per acre. After the wheat was 
harvested, a most luxuriant growth of clover and timothy 
covered the ground. 

The above statement of facts clearly proves that in this 
instance, the capital which was expended in draining, was 
profitably used ; and doubtless thousands of acres in this 
State might be as profitably reclaimed as were these, and 
thus render the country more pleasant, productive, and 
healthy. We consider it one of the greatest improve- 
ments of modern farming ; for without it, wet land cannot 
be cultivated with profit, because tillage-crops cannot be 
obtained ; consequently, a rotation of crops cannot be 
practiced, and clover, that great fertilizer of the earth — 
that which fills the fields of the farmer with fat cattle, 
his barns with hay, and the earth with manure — will not 
flourish. In short, it is the basis of all improvement of 
wet soils. Aside from profit, it enables the farmer to 
convert unpleasant looking spots on his farm into fields 
of surpassing beauty and loveliness ; which, with the 
farmer of correct taste, is a consideration of importance. 

We will now consider the management and application 
of manure. 

The most fertile land will become exhausted under a 
continual course of cropping, unless the soil is compen- 
sated for the loss which it sustains. This is furnished 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 41 

directly or indirectly in the form of manure. And some 
soils are naturally so barren, (or have been made so by 
improper management,) as to be incapable of profitable 
cultivation without the aid of some fertilizing agent ; con- 
sequently, it becomes a subject of great importance to 
understand how we can make the most manure and apply 
it to the best advantage. We believe the manure heap 
may be doubled in quantity, by carefully yarding the 
domestic animals during the season of foddering, and 
making a proper use of straw to furnish them with com- 
fortable lodging. And here permit us to say, that. aside 
from the advantage of making and preserving manures, 
but for the purpose of economically keeping domestic 
animals in good condition, and preventing injury to the 
grass-roots and the earth from their treading, no domestic 
animal should he allowed unnecessarily to roam from the 
yard after foddering commences, until the fields furnish a 
good bite of grass in the spring. 

But if this does not furnish sufficient manure, and per- 
haps too much cannot be made after the yards are cleared 
in the spring, draw weeds of all descriptions, cut before 
the seeds are sufficiently matured to vegetate, scrapings 
from the roadside, and muck from the swamp, (if the 
swamp is not to be reclaimed by draining,) and deposite 
them in the yard ; and the quality of the mass will be 
much benefitted for most soils, by incorporating in it a 
liberal quantity of lime, the whole worked together and 
formed into compost. This will absorb the liquid portion 
of the manure made in winter, which might otherwise be 
lost. 

We believe that spring is the best time to apply manure, 
when all nature is starting into renewed life and energy. 
We should recommend that it be applied to hoed crops, 
as they are the most benefitted by the direct application 



42 THE farmer's and 

of manure, while small grain is frequently injured by i'^ 
as it causes the straw to grow too luxuriant and soft tt 
sustain and mature the ear. To obtain the greatest ben* 
efit from manure, it should be thoroughly incorporated 
with the earth near the surface. But if it is applied in 
a coarse and unfermented state, it may be covered deeper 
without sustaining loss, as the gas which is generated by 
the decomposition of the manure rises and is absorbed by 
the earth above. 

Another mode of improving the farm consists in mix- 
ing in due proportion the various soils where nature has 
not done it. A soil consisting of so large a proportion of 
clay as to lack a proper degree of friability, may be 
rendered very productive by the application of sand ; 
and vice versa, sand will become a profitable soil by the 
admixture of clay. In many sections where sand pre- 
dominates, beds of clay marl abound, which may be in- 
corporated with sand to great advantage. 

Another method of improving the farm consists in 
gradually deepening the soil by deep ploughing, which 
enables the growing crops to withstand wet better, for the 
water will sooner settle away. It also enables vegetation 
better to withstand drought, as the roots strike deeper and 
derive moisture from a greater depth than they could 
with friable soil of less depth. For the purpose of giv- 
ing greater depth and friability to the soil, the subsoil 
plough is well adapted, and we think will soon come 
into general use. 

Fourthly — Cultivation of various kinds of crops. 

The best preparation for Indian corn and potatoes is a 
clover ley, made rich by manure. If the manure is 
long and unfermented, spread it on the furrow after the 
land has been ploughed, and incorporate it in the earth 



THE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 43 

by thorough harrowing. Plough but once, and spare no 
pains to do it thoroughly. Plant early ; keep the crop 
free from weeds, by frequently stirring the soil with the 
cultivator and hoe, and avoid hilling, especially for corn. 

For winter wheat, the best preparation which the ground 
can receive is a thorough summer- fallowing, though if 
the ground is free from weeds and in good state of cul- 
tivation, wheat may be profitably sown with one plough- 
ing after peas, and, perhaps, on some soils and in certain 
situations, after corn. The wheat sown should be free 
from all foul seeds, and in quantity about two bushels 
per acre. Spring wheat may be successfully cultivated 
with once ploughing land on which corn or potatoes were 
raised the preceding year. Barley requires soil and 
treatment similar to spring wheat. 

Oats require much the same treatment as spring 
wheat, and should be sown early to secure a good crop. 
Late sowing frequently produces a large growth of 
straw, but the berry is generally light. 

In raising peas, we have been most successful when 
we have inverted greensward, and harrowed in three 
bushels of seed per acre, on the furrow, and made all 
smooth with the roller. 

For raising beets, carrots, or rutabaga, select a sandy 
loam ; make it rich ; plough deep ; plant evenly ; keep 
the ground free from weeds by frequent hoeing, and do 
not suffer the plants to stand too thick. Follow these 
directions, and an abundant crop will be very sure to 
crown your labors. 

Fifthly — Seeding land with grass seeds. 

This subject deserves greater attention from the farm- 
ing community than it has generally received. Owing 
to a lack of proper seeding, large quantities of land are 



44 

annually left a barren waste, or, what is worse, produce 
large quantities of noxious weeds, which are allowed to 
perfect their seeds, and these are wafted on the wings of 
the wind in every direction, blasting the hopes and . de- 
stroying the expectations which the more prudent and 
economical farmer had entertained, that he should be able 
to eradicate and keep clear from his land pestiferous 
plants. Oh ! that man would learn to do to others as he 
would have them to do by him in similar circumstances. 
We deem it of the utmost importance that all land should 
be properly seeded with grass seeds, whenever it is to be 
suffered to remain uncultivated with grain. This not on- 
ly helps to keep the land free of weeds, but it furnishes 
food for domestic animals, tends greatly to keep the land 
fertile, and renders it more easy of cultivation when 
needed. The kind of seeds used must depend somewhat 
on the condition of the soil. But if this is sufficiently 
dry to permit a rotation of crops, which we think it should 
be, we know of none better than red-clover and herds'- 
grass. The quantity we would recommend is twelve 
quarts per acre, equal parts of each by measure. 

The best time for sowing on winter grain, is on some 
of the last snows of spring. If sown too early, it may 
vegetate before the severe frosts of spring are all past, and 
if it does, they are liable to destroy the young plants. If 
the grass seeds are to be sown with spring grain, first 
sow the grain and harrow once over, then sow the grass 
seeds, harrow lightly and make all smooth with the roll- 
er. In the month of May, sow two bushels of plaster 
per acre, to preserve the young plants from the effects of 
drought. If it is intended for pasturing, sow plaster on 
it the next spring ; but if it is intended for mowing, omil 
the second dressing of plaster, for it is very liable to 
cause the clover to grow too rank, to fall and become 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 45 

mouldy; which injures the quality of the grass, and 
greatly increases the labor of cutting. Let the motto of 
the farmer be to plough often, and seed often and plenti- 
fully with grass seeds. 

Sixthly — Raising Domestic Animals. 

A preparing to raise domestic animals, the first thing to 
be considered is the use for which they are intended. 
No prudent, well-informed man, would think of raising 
a racer from the French horse of Canada, or a plough- 
horse from the light racer of the south ; a fine woolled 
sheep from a Cotswold, or a heavy mutton sheep from a 
fine Saxony ; a pig that should fatten young from a land 
pike, or one which would attain great weight from the 
Chinese breed We have different breeds, and these are 
adapted to different purposes. 

After having selected that breed of the different kinds 
of domestic animals which he thinks best adapted to the 
purpose for which he wish's to rear, he should endeavor 
to obtain good animals to ^reed from. These he should 
never suffer to deteriorate, but should endeavor, by care- 
fully preserving the best animals for breeders, to improve 
on his stock. In order to do this, it is necessary to feeu. 
well, and keep the animal constantly improving, ^y 
feeding well, we do not mean high or extravagant feed ; 
but we mean, start the animal as you can hold out, and 
never suffer it to lose an inch which is gained ; for if 
you do, the forage consumed by the animal while falling 
back and again coming up to the point before attained, 
is lost ; also the time, care and attention bestowed upon 
it, and the interest on the value of the animal in the 
meantime. In addition to all this, it is doubtful whether 
an animal so treated is capable of becoming so perfect 
as it might have been, if it had been at all times kept 



46 THE farmer's and 

gradually improving. It is easily perceived, that the 
farmer who does not at all times keep his domestic ani- 
mals in good condition, does not practice that which is for 
his interest ; but we wish also to appeal to his humanity. 
Can the farmer, who suffers his domestic animals to roam 
over the highway or fields, with but a scanty pittance 
for food, and no protection from the chilling blasts of 
winter, wasting away the little flesh they may have gain- 
ed in summer, and perhaps losing life itself from actual 
starvation, lay any well-founded claims to humanity ? 
We think not. If any of us are thus cruelly treating 
our domestic animals, would it not be well for us to re- 
form our own practice before we charge our southern 
neighbors with cruelty ? The abolition of cruelty to an-' 
imals should at once be adopted, and no person who re- 
fuses to comply with its reasonable and humane require- 
ments, can plead that the Constitution forbids it, legal 
enactments are opposed to it, or that self-interest is not 
promoted by it. 

Seventhly — Necessity of barns and sheds sufficient to store 
all crops, and protect domestic animals from the inclem- 
ency of the weather. 

The following are a few of the many reasons which 
might be urged in favor of barns and sheds sufficient to 
store all crops, and protect domestic animals from inclem- 
ent weather. 

1. Crops are preserved in better condition in barns than 
they can be in stacks. 

2. Hay or grain when deposited in stacks, is always in 
an unsafe condition until the stack is completed, which 
frequently cannot be on the day when commenced, and 
sometimes several days will unavoidably elapse between 
the commencement and completion. This inconvenience 



47 

and loss are obviated by the use of barns, for each load 
when deposited is considered safe. 

3. All forage for domestic animals can be more conve- 
niently and economically fed from barns than it can be 
from stacks ; for when the stack is opened, a certain por- 
tion is always exposed to injury from storms, and a con- 
siderable portion, when fed to animals, is blown away or 
trodden under foot. The animals, while consuming the 
feed, are exposed to cold sleet and chilling blasts, from 
which they would gladly retreat, did not stern necessity 
compel them to eat thus exposed or starve. No animals 
thus exposed can be expected to thrive ; and it is cer- 
tain they will not, unless they consume a much greater 
quantity of food than would be required if kept dry, com- 
fortable, and not compelled to fight the whirlwind. 

4. When animals are fed in stables or sheds well lit- 
tered, a larger quantity of manure may be made — a large 
proportion, if not all of which can be kept under shelter, 
and thus preserved from the great loss which exposure to 
storms occasions. 



FARM BUILDINGS, 



FENCES, 



BTO. BTO 



CHAPTER IV. 

FARM BUILDINGS. FENCES, ETC. 

In this department will be found ample directions for 
the various kinds of dwellings which our readers maybe 
likely to need ; from the rude, though comfortable log 
shanty, to the costly and tasteful framed and brick house. 

In the selection of a spot for a dwelling, one that is dry 
and somewhat elevated should be chosen. The conven- 
ience of a spring should also4)e considered. If there be 
handsome trees standing on and around the selected site, 
be careful not to cut doicn too many of them. Spare the 
trees ; you will not repent it. Have an eye to ornament 
a* well as utility and convenience. 

LOG SHANTY. 

Some will advise a house to be first built, others a 
*' shanty ;" but the latter is so expeditiously done, and is 
so much cheaper, and a comfortable house till the emigrant 
gets " acclimated," that we consider it the best. A shanty 
is built of logs cut from the felled trees. The size of the 
building to be according to the number of fhe family. 
They are to be seen from fourteen feet long and twelve 
broad, to eighteen feet by fo-^rteen feet or so— the shape 
as *' ^ows: 



52 



THE FAHMER S AND 





The roof may be covered with shingles, or with boards. 

Shingles are naade from the pine, by cutting a pine-tree 

down, and then cutting it with a saw called a "cross-cut 

saw," into lengths or blocks of eighteen inches long, (they 

are cut sometimes twenty-four inches long,) and these 

blocks are split into thin slices of different breadths, but 

they will be about one length. These are shaved off withi 

a drawing-knife, at one end, when the shingle is done. 

They are sold from one and a half dollars to two and a 

half dollars per bunch, containing what is called one 

thousand shingles, of different breadths. A thousand 

shingles will cover about ten feet square of a roof, (thai 

is, equal to 100 square feet.) They aj'e laid on boards- 

(and the roughest and cheapest boards, split or sound' 

will do,) like the slates o-r tiles of the old country houses'; 

No rain or wet will get through them, and they answe . 

all the purposes of the slated, tiled, or thatched roof of ;( 

house in the old country. But the roof of the shanty ma; 

be covered with boards. These are put on the roo 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 53 

breadthways, and are got of lengths to extend across the 
breadth of the roof; and if put on two inches apart from 
each other, and if the boards are twelve inches broad, 
will, in a roof of fourteen feet long, take only about thir- 
teen boards, allowing them to " lap " over at the ends. 
The spaces between each of the boards are then covered 
by slabs, or by narrow boards. The roof is then com- 
pleted. Slahs are the outside "slices," as we may term 
them, which are taken off the logs at the saw-mill, in 
squaring them to make straight-edged boards. These 
can be got at the mill for taking them away, though some- 
times a cent is asked for each slab. The spaces between 
the logs are filled in from the inside of the building by 
split pieces of basswood, cedar, or other wood, which splits 
easy, and this operation is called " chinking." On the 
outside of these spaces, the settler then plasters them over 
with mortar ; being the clay mixed up with water, and 
which makes a good substitute for lime. By mixing a 
little sand with the mortar, it makes it harder when dry, 
and not so liable to crack. The chimney is built at one 
end of the shanty, and may be built in two ways, by split 
laths, (split pieces of basswood,) and then plastered over 
with mortar, or by making, as it were, four ladders, spars 
of which, ten inches or so apart, and then filling up the 
spaces with what are sometimes called "cats," being 
mortar mixed up with hay (wild meadow hay the best,) 
or straw, and moulded by the hand into lengths, accord- 
ing to the breadth of the spars in the ladders ; and these 
are laid over the spars and joined together, each succeed- 
ing course being joined to the one below, and thus form 
when dry a continued and solid chimney, perfectly free 
from harm by the fire, which the first described chimney 
(by split pieces of wood,) is not. But this, and the fixing 
the windows and the door, by cutting out the logs of the 



54 



THE FARBIER S AND 



building and fitting in windows and door-casings, eic, wm 
at once be learned, in a few hours, by an inspection by 
the emigrant on the spot, and by the hints from his neigh- 
bors. If the emigrant will spare the money, carpenters 
(wrights and joiners) can be got to fix the roof, windows, 
door, and floor. 

LOG HOUSE. 

If the emigrant resolves on having a liouse ifi place of 
a shanty, we may state that it costs more money, time, 
and labor, than a shanty will. The work to be done to 
a house is of the same kind as required for a shanty, 
which being described need not be repeated. The differ- 
ence is, that the house is built up of logs to the height of 
ten feet, or so, on the four sides, and there is an upper 
floor, joists being put in as the building is raised. Houses 
vary in size from twenty feet by sixteen or eighteen, to 
thirty feet long and twenty feet wide. The roof is not a 
shed or shanty roof, but the same as an ordinary house, 
shaped like this : 




\ 



When the shanty or house is to be raised or built, the 
neighbors are invited, and they always come willingly, 
for there is not one among them but had the same done to 
himself. This is called a " bee." 

By turning to the second chapter of this book, page 26, 
a more minute description of the manner of making a 



THE emigrant's IUND-BOOK. 55 

log-house may be found ; together with an accurate esti- 
mate of the expense. 

it may b^ well enough to add, that elm lark makes 
a good covering for the roof, instead of shingles. In 
the spring of the year, when the leaves are just coming 
out, the bark peels off easily, and pieces as large as two 
men could lift can be taken off. The bark, after being 
stripped off, should be spread out flat to dry a little. It 
may then be put on the roof in strips of four or five feet 
in length, and as wide as the bark will allow. It should 
then be pinned down with hemlock or maple pins. An 
auger will be necessary to make the pin-holes true, so 
that they shall not leak. 



50 THE farmer's and 

PLAN FOR A FARM COTTAGE. . 

The accompanying plan is designed for a house that 
will be within the means of most farmers. It is arranged 
to be built at separate times, or all together, as may best 
suit the wants or ability of the builder. The object has 
been to combine convenience and comfort with economy, 
and at the same time have it make a pleasant appearance. 
Economy in the use of fuel is aimed at in the arrange- 
ment of fires, and for this reason stoves are used, and no 
fire-places made except for the kitchen ; the chimneys 
merely coming sufficiently "below the ceiling of the upper 
rooms to admit the pipe. The wing is eighteen feet by 
twenty-four, with fourteen feet posts, the roof spanning 
the long way, and contains the hall, stairs, a large room 
and a small bed-room, and a closet under the stairs, on 
the first floor, and two chambers with closets on the second 
floor. The lower story to be eight or nine feet in the 
clear, leaving a comfortable attic above. The main 
building is eighteen feet by twenty-six, with eighteen feet 
posts, with a piazza on two sides, which is to be f^xtended 
in front of the wing to shelter the door ; this contains the 
parlor and bed-room, with a closet, and a passage commu 
nicating with the other parts of the house, on the lower 
floor, and two chambers with closets on the second floor. 
The lower story to be ten feet high, the upper rooms to 
be arched under the roof, making them from eight to nine 
feet high. 

The rear is one story, eighteen feet by twenty-two, with 
a piazza on one side, and contains the kitchen, pantry, 
and cheese-room, back and cellar stairs. The cellar is 
planned to extend under this part of the house, though it 
can be made larger if desired. The outside cellar-door 
and windows are shown in the elevation. The wood- 
house is to be joined to the rear of this, and is partly 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 



57 



shown in the plan, but the size is left to the convenience 
of the builder. 




3* 



68 



THE farmer's and 
M 




GROUND PLAN FIRST FLOOR. 



EXPLANATION DIMENSIONS IN THE CLEABa 

A, Dining Room, 14 x 17 feet. 

B, Bed-room, 8 x 11 feet. 

C, Hall, 6x8 feet. 

D, Parlor, 15 x 17 feet. 

E, Bed-room, 10 x 16 feet. 
F F, Passages, 3^ feet wide. 
G, Kitchen, 16 x 17 feet. 

H, Front Stairs, 3 feet clear. 
I, Closet mider Stairs. 
J, Bed-room Closet. 
K L, Cheese-room and Pantry, 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 



50 



M, Wood House, 24 x — feet. 

N, O, Fire-place and Oven. 

P, P, Piazza, 7 feet wide. 

Q, Piazza, 6 feet wide. 

R, Back and Cellar Stairs. 

S, Wood House Stairs. 

T, Closet. 

V, Cistern. 

W, Outside Cellar Door. 

X, X, Cupboards. 

1, Place for Stove. 

2, False Fire-place. 




GROUND PLAN SBCOND FLOOR. 



EXPLANATION. 



A, Room, 11 X 11 feet. 

B, do 11x14 feet. 

C, do 14 X 17 feet. 

D, do 10 X 14 feet. 
I, I, I, I, Closets. 



60 THE FARMER S AND 

F, F, F, Passages. 

G, Garret over Kitchen. 

1, 1, Stove Pipes and Chimneys. 

S, Stairs. 

The explanations of the cuts refer to the house when it 
shall be completed — ^there is no extra room to be kept for 
great occasions ; by removing the piazza on the side, and 
building another wing, an extra parlor can be obtained, 
which may communicate with the other by folding or 
sliding doors if desired, and also a small office or library 
communicating with this parlor and the bed-room. This 
would give the exterior a more regular appearance. 

The bed-room is to be warmed by the pipe from the 
parlor stove, passing through the false fire-place into a 
sheet-iron dummy, and thence up through the room above, 
which it would warm some, into the chimney. The cook- 
ing stove might be placed in the room marked A., in cold 
weather, the pipe passing through the room above into the 
chimney. This would keep the house comfortably warm 
with two fires. 

The pantry, cheese-room and cellar stairs, are placed 
with a view to this arrangement, and the parlor and bed- 
room are separated from this room by a passage, for the 
same reason. 

In the ground plans, the- doors are represented by fine 
single lines, and the windows by double lines. The bed- 
room window which opens on the piazza, should reach 
down to the floor, as also the parlor window opposite the 
steps. The stairs are crowded forward into the hall some, 
to bring the landing at the top in the right place. They 
are lighted at the top by an attic window at the end of the 
central passage F. 

The windows of each room are made to look out to as 
many points of the compass as possible, as it adds much 



• THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 61 

zd the pleasantness of the house, especially in warm 
weather ; and the doors which communicate from one 
room to another, are nearly in direct lines. 

It is not to be expected that a plan can be made to suit 
all situations; the formation of the ground, and the point 
of compass to which it must front, would necessarily re- 
quire it to be varied, in some cases, even if the plan itself 
suited in the detail. This may be done by inverting the 
plan : an easy way of doing, which is to place it before a 
window and draw the lines on the opposite side of the 
paper. 

I have drawn this to be built of vvood, as that is the 
most common way of building. It may be built of brick 
or stone, by allowing a little more for thickness of walls. 

Chicago. T. WRIGHT. 

CHEAP FARM-HOUSE. 

FROM SOLON ROBINSON, ESQ. 

Inclosed, I send you a plan for a small cheap farm- 
house, twenty-four by thirty-two feet, and one-and-a-half 
story high. I have designed to set the south end to the road, 
so that the main entrance would be on the south end of the 
porch and thence into either room . The east side of the porch, 
I should hope to see ornamented with woodbine, honey- 
suckle, or some of the family of creepers. In the summer 
time, such a porch would be the pleasantest part of the 
house — a delightful fragrant shade in a sultry afternoon. 
You see I have made a good-sized kitchen, for in a farm- 
house this is the room principally occupied by the whole 
family ; and should be so arranged that it will be warm 
and pleasant in winter, and easily ventilated in summer. 
The shed at the north end will protect that side, and af- 
ford room for wood, etc., and in summer, will be very 
useful for washing, soap-making, and other rough work. 



62 



THE FARMER S AND 



In placing the stairs, I have not calculated for a cellar, 
as 1 do not believe that, in this climate and soil, it is healthy 
to have a cellar under the dwelling ; but if one is required, 
I would open the door on to the porch, which would pre- 
vent the deleterious gas from rising up the stairway di- 
rectly into the room. If the builder should prefer to have 
the front room larger, he can run the stairs up one side 
of the pantry. In that case, he could build the kitchen 
part complete in itself, and afterward add the front part. 




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THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 



63 



PLAN OF A PRAIRIE FARM HOUSE. 




64 



THE FARMER S AND 




GROUND PLAN. 



A PRAIRIE FARM HOUSE. 

The annexed plan is designed for a prairie farm-nouse, 
and is calculated to combine economy, comfort, and con- 
venience, with a pleasant and home-like appearance. 
The importance of this requisite, is not generally appre- 
ciated in the construction of farm dwellings in this coun- 
try ; and although a tasty appearance is considered de- 
sirable by most farmers, many think it a waste of money 
to lay out fifty or a hundred dollars on piazzas and the like 
additions to a house, costing ten to fifteen hundred dollars, 
to secure this end. To be sure, the moral benefit arising 
from having an attractive dwelling for a home, cannot 
be estimated in dollars and cents ; yet who will deny 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 6| 

that our happiness, the object we are all in search of, is 
sensibly increased by it. There is now and then a farm- 
er who has the good sense to appreciate this object ; and 
to aid such, this plan is offered for publication. It is de- 
signed for a southern or eastern aspect, the end fronting 
to the road. The plan is drawn for a frame-house, but 
may be altered for brick or stone, by increasing the 
thickness of the walls. Its convenience will be seen at 
a glance. It contains all the room which a farmer in 
moderate circumstances needs, and there is none that is 
superfluous. Should any like to build after the plan, 
who are not able to build the whole at once, the rear part 
can be put up first, and will answer as a dwelling by 
using the meal-room as a bed-room. The main building 
is eighteen by thirty-six feet, outside ; the lean-to-addi- 
tions, each eight feet wide. The rear building is eighteen 
by twenty-five feet. The posts to the main building are 
sixteen feet ; to the piazza, ten feet ; to the rear building, 
twelve feet. The rooms upon the lower floor are nine 
feet between floors, and the chambers eight feet. The 
room h is intended for a dining-room in summer, and the 
room h for a summer kitchen ; in winter, the room h to 
be used for both purposes. The expense of completing 
the whole, including cellar under the main part, is esti- 
mated at from $800 to $1000, according to location and 
the material used. 

Explanation of ground plan, a parlor, 17 by 
15 feet ; h kitchen, 17 by 15 feet ; c c bed-rooms, 8 
by 13 ; d d piazzas, 8 by 23 ; e e entries, 6 feet wide ; 
/ buttery, 6 feet square ; g milk-room, 6 feet square ; h 
back kitchen, 12 by 13 feet; i wood-house, 12 feet 
sqare ; j meal-room, 6 by 8 feet ; k chamber stairs, 4 
feet wide ; I cellar stairs ; m Franklin stove ; n n steps ; 
closets ; p wood-house stairs ; q pump ; r sink ; 



6g" 



THE FARMER S AND 



* bulk'head, covering outside cellar stairs ; 2 cooking 
stove; 3 place for stove in summer. (i'<iti9e 

■'■■'• 19 
OJ 

».t 

a 



/ 




' 


o 




it 




a 


f 


, „ „ J,„ „,„ 



SECOND STORY. 

Explanation, a chamber, 17 by 15 feet ; h h bedi 
rooms, 12 by 8 feet ; c passage ; d staircase ; e closet ; 
jT drum, connected by pipe with stove below. 

DESIGN FOR A FARM HOUSE AND OUT-BUILDINGS. 



V(J 



BY JOHN J. THOMAS, BIACEDON, N. Y. 



Figures 1, 2, 3, represent the farm-house — fig. 1, the 
elevation, partaking of the Italian style ; fig. 2, the ground 
jplan, and fig. 3, plan of the second floor. A form nearly 
square is given to the building, for the sake of economy, 
requiring far less external covering for the space inclosed ; 
at the same time the outline is somewhat broken, to pre- 
vent heavinees and monotony of expression. About half 



i 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 



e'T 




ELEVATION- 



•Fig. 1. 



is surrounded with a veranda, under which lathing and 
plastering may take the place of clapboards, and thus 
save expense. The whole building may be considered as 
composed of two parts or wings, extending from front to 
back ; the ridge of their roofs also in the same direction, 
connected by a centre building with the roof, at right 
angles to the two former. The two wings are chiefly 
occupied as parlor and family room in front, and kitchen 
and nursery back ; and the centre part as a library, (for 
books, minerals, maps, astronomical diagrams, etc.) lighted 
by a skylight in the roof, through a circular opening 
surrounded by a railing, in the second floor. This open- 
ing will admit of thorough ventilation of the adjacent 
rooms below, if desired, or it may be closed by a sash of 
glass, the light softened by a translucent varnish. The 
kitchen is lighted with one very broad window. A, A, 
are chimneys, and admit of open fire-places for the par- 
lor, nursery, kitchen and family room. If a hot air fur- 
nace is used, by placing it under the centre of the library, 
the heated air may be easily conducted to all the rooms 



68 



THE iAKMER S AND 



i Srove I 

:he:n h 




jbni- 



GROUND PLAN Fig. 2. 



above. The nursery entry opens on the large verandiEi," 
enabling children to take fresh air in all weathers. A 
back entrance to the parlor may be easily made from the 




SECOND FLOOR Fig. 8. 



THE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 69 

same entry, if wished. The bed-room, adjoining the 
nursery, is covered with a lower roof, separate from the 
rest of the roof, and corresponds with the roof of the 
porch. 

The eaves are five feet above the second floor ; and 
four feet additional rise in the roof, gives ample height for 
the upper rooms, which may be six in number, and allow 
sufficient space for closets. 

The dairy should occupy the coolest part of the cellar, 
and be entirely separated from other parts by walls. 
The best and cheapest material for the floor, is a coating 
of two inches of water-lime mortar. 

The size of this house will appear, too large to many, 
but it is not larger than the houses of a large portion of 
our farmers, after piecing and patching ; costs much less, 
and appears far better. It is much easier to pass from' 
one room to another on the same level, than to pass a 
flight of stairs ; hence the aim has been to have as many 
of those in common use on the same floor. This also 
contributes to economy in erection — as calculation will 
readily show. A one-story house, ten feet high and forty 
feet square, will inclose 1600 feet of floor; a two-story 
house, twenty-eight and a half feet square and twenty 
feet high, will also inclose 1600 feet ; but the latter will 
require 650 feet more of siding, which will cost more, 
with painting, than the addition in shingling the former. 

A careful and liberal estimate, made from full bills of 
costs of several houses actually erected by the writer, 
places the cost of this building, if made plain, and of 
wood, at about $1,400, at the average price of materials, 
teaming, labor, etc., in central and western New- York. 
This cheapness is owing principally to the cottage form, 
compact arrangement, and the diminution of siding and 
paint under the veranda. 



510 THE farmer's and 



iw Vi ,vntri9 em 




ELEVATION OF THE FARMERY — Fig. 4. 



A£. 



•c^iii'i -Ji iWi 



FZoor. 



'Figure 4, is an elevation of the farmery, and fig. 5 is 
a plan of the farmery, house, and adjacent grounds. The 
farm buildings form nearly a hollow square, the barn in 
the centre of the further range. In fig. 5, the barn cellar 
only is shown, being on a level with the stables on each 
side. The further part is for roots, and is filled through 
two windows with hopper-like troughs, 
into which the cart is dumped. The 
nearer part is for straw, to be used for 
cutting and for littering. From the 
intermediate space, passages four feet 
wide, run in front of the stables on 
either side, for feeding. Fig. 6, shows 
the upper floor of the barn ; A, un- 
threshed grain ; R, corn-crib ; C, gra- 
nary, the bin for oats, with an opening 
•below for feeding horses ; this opening closed by a sliding 
board. A door opens from each of the last, to facilitate 
loading of wagons from them in the yard below ; the bay 
for straw extends upward as high as the top of the gra- 
nary, over which a floor is placed for holding unthreshed 
grain above. The dotted lines show the wagon- way for 
entering and passing from the barn floor. 

This way should be wide enough on one side to place 
the horse-power of a threshing machine. A band may 



Straw. 



lii^ 



Figure 6. 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 



71 






RonU 



Si>nc^fnr - 



-/ 




PLAN OF FARMERY, HOUSE AND GROUNDS Fig, 5- 

c 

extend from this horse-power through a hole in the floor, 
and drive the straw-cutter, root-slicer, etc., below. The 
hay for horses and cows is kept in the loft over the stables, 
from which it is conveniently thrown down into the pas- 
sage in front of the animals. E, shed for sheep, with 



72 THE farmer's and 

racks at right angles to the passage R, from which they 
are filled with hay thrown down from above ; e, sheep- 
yard ; F, piggery ; f, pig-yard ; G, room for boiling 
roots; I, poultry-house ; P, passage from manure yard, 
0, to back part of farm. K, K, calf-house ; L, work-shop ; 
M, house for ploughs^ harrows, horse-rakes, rollers, etc. ; 
N, wagon-shed. H, house for keeping store wood during 
seasoning, wood seasoned two or three years being much 
better 'than for a shorter period ; and a rough boarded 
out-building, being also cheaper than a well finished, 
painted one in contact with the house. The manure yard 
o, should be about two feet below the surrounding build- 
ings, to which the cleanings of the stables are to be taken 
daily in a large boxed wheelbarrow, and straw and marsh 
muck supplied as needed. The yard should be well sup- 
plied with water as convenience may dictate. Ventilators, 
made of square board tubes, should be placed over the 
stables and run up through the roof. 

This plan may be changed, without altering the general 
arrangement, so as to contain more or less grain, more or 
less hay, stable room, etc., according to circumstances. 
The hollow square affords shelter to the yard from wind, 
an important consideration for our climate. The extent 
and expense of the buildings, are not greater than are 
often seen, when convenience of arrangement is entirely 
set aside ; and the labor of preparing food, and feeding 
animals, double what it should be. The wings, sheds, 
poultry.yard, garden, etc., may be reversed, according to 
aspect and exposure to winds. 

PISE, UNBURNT BRICK HOUSES. 

In very many sections of the West, particularly where 
good lumber is obtained with difficulty, houses might be 
built with advantage after the following plan. The fol- 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 73 

lowing was translated from the French for the Southern 
Agriculturalist. 

In many of the northern departments of France, par- 
ticularly in Champagne, the name of Pise is often improp- 
erly given to a kind of unburnt brick or artificial stone, 
made with the mud of streets or roads, with which is (al- 
most always) incorporated a little straw ; this mixture is 
then pressed in wooden moulds, then taken out to be dried 
in the sun or shade. This pretended pise is used for want 
of other materials suitable for building, and by this means 
are obtained the- most miserable constructions possible, 
Incapable of supporting the lightest roof; which conse- 
quently require a frame-work to be raised from the foun- 
dation to the roof, in order to support it. Besides, the 
repairs to this kind of building, render it really the most 
expensive of all ; for this kind of brick soon cracks, warps, 
separates from the wooden frame, and soon falls upon the 
slightest shock, either outside or within the house. In 
other countries farther south, as Artois and Flanders, 
where stone buildings are very expensive, another kind 
of pise or unburnt brick is used ; although made in the 
same way, they are very good, on account of the quality 
of the earth, which is chalky and compact, and which 
even without straw does not crack in the sun. These 
bricks cement so well with mortar, that when an old wall 
or chimney is pulled down, it is not uncommon to see it 
broken into only three or four pieces by its fall. These 
buildings can therefore be solid and economical, for the 
only remarkable expense is in the foundations, which 
ought to be rubble- work, brick or tabbey, raised at least 
one foot above the earth around. As to the true pise, 
which we derive from the Romans, it is still much used 
at Lyons, and in some of the southern departments — also 
in Italy, Spain, etc. It differs essentially from the bricks 

4 



74 THE FARiVIER S AKft 

or artificial stones that have just been described. It also, 
however, is only an unburnt earth, not tempered, but 
slightly moistened ; rendered very fine, then squeezed and 
well beaten in large or small moulds, or between two 
boards strongly fastened to each other, by which means 
can be constructed inclosures, walls and houses of several 
stories of no greater thickness than is common in masonry. 
*' It would appear almost incredible," says Mr. Rosier, 
" if experience did not support the assertion, that walls of 
earth could last many centuries, provided they are well 
plastered with mortar, protected from the rain, and secured 
against moisture by foundations in masonry raised above 
the level of the earth." 

As to the kinds of earth, there are very few which are 
not suitable for pise, except pure clay, because it cracks 
in drying, and pure sand, because it admits of no adhe- 
sion. Where there is a choice, the preference is to be 
given to that which is stifi*— that which sets or clods 
easiest; which is known by its retaining the shape given 
to it by the hand, without sticking to the fingers — such 
generally is the untried earth of gardens. Stiff* earth, 
mixed with gravel, provided it is not too coarse, is employed 
with equal success ; it ought also to contain no admixture 
of roots or manures, which by rotting would allow the air 
to penetrate and injure the wall. As to the moisture that 
this earth ought to have, it ought to be the same that it 
usually has in a natural state, at two or three feet belovir 
the surface. When it is well pulverized, it is put into 
the moulds or between two boards, and well rammed or 
beaten with rammers, which will reduce its volume and 
allow more earth to be added, which must be beaten in 
the same manner, until the moulds or boards are exactly 
filled. 

Previously lo adding more earth, the labi layer ought 



75 

to be scratched with a sharp iron, or small mattock, in 
order that the two layers may join exactly, and form but 
one body. At Lyons, where this style of building is very 
common, they have large cases or boxes, without bottoms, 
which are supported by pieces of boards laid across the 
walls ; the pieces arc movable, and can be placed in 
succession ; as they are filled with pise, the short boards 
are drawn from their original places, and carried further 
on to support them again, and so on in succession. In the 
adjustment of one round to another, mark or scratch the 
work as above, or put a little mortar to serve as a cement. 
Also, from one story to another, it is necessary to put 
some bits of rough board, flat and in difl^erent positions at 
the corners, to prevent the walls from separating. The 
partitions are done in the same way. Spaces are always 
kept open for windows and doors, by placing the frames 
for them beforehand, or they are set in brick or stone, 
where either is convenient. 

By either method of making the pise, in a little time, 
and at small expense, can be constructed houses and other 
rural buildings, covering them like brick or stone houses. 
Both these methods have, however, an essential defect ; 
which is, that the ramming of the earth, and consequently 
the hardness and solidity of the pise, vary from one box 
to another, and from morning to afternoon. This solidity 
depends, in fact, upon the expertness and strength of the 
rammers, which are not always in the same degree. In 
the morning, for instance, the work is always well rammed, 
but toward night, fatigue necessarily causes some diminu- 
tion : hence, a sort of imperfection in the work. Again, 
as the work must be done in the open air, (which suits 
warm countries very well, where it rains at long inter- 
vals,) it is often exposed to rains in our mild climate : 
(France :) and rain is a great obstacle, which occasions 



76 THE farmer's and 

almost always a good deal of imperfection in the making 
of pise. It was for this reason that Cointereau, architect 
from the city of Lyons, having settled at Paris toward 
the end of his career, conceived' the idea of making his 
pis6 beforehand under sheds, in small moulds, where it 
was easier to press them always equally, and to allow 
them to dry beforehand, sheltered from the rains and other 
vicissitudes of the seasons : which produced in the end 
true bricks or artificial stones of great hardness, and con- 
sequently excellent materials for building. It must be 
understood that in working them, as in using hewn stone, 
a little thin mortar or quick-lime will be required. In 
some places, stiff earth makes an excellent mortar for this 
kind of pise. The size and shape of the moulds can be 
varied in such a way as to answer in all cases and for all 
purposes. In this way, can be made beforehand, not only 
artificial stone, ready cut for the corners and angles of 
the windows and doors, but also for pilasters, columns, 
circular, elliptic and gothic arches, etc.; for experience 
has proved, that with the exception of the key, which can 
be of wood as well as hewn stone, pise can be used for 
the vaults of cellars provided it is protected from moisture. 
However, for the brick, and even for every other purpose, 
it would be as well to prepare moulds of only moderate 
dimensions, so that each brick shall not weigh more than 
twenty-five or thirty pounds, then one man can easily 
handle and place them : otherwise it would be necessary 
to employ more men, more time, and tools which neces- 
sarily wear off the corners of these stones or bricks, and 
injure them. It will be seen in the sequel how economi- 
cal is this style of building, even in countries where wood, 
stone and lime are more abundant. It is the true rural 
construction, cool in summer, warm in winter; and is be- 
sides susceptible, at a small expense, of the handsomest 



77 

docor&tions by means of fresco paintings, which are easily- 
put on, and resist the vicissitudes of the seasons ; it will 
be seen also, that they can be of very great solidity. 

The rio^i proprietors and merchants of Lyons, who have 
delightful villas in the environs of this city, build them 
exclusively of pise, plastered over and painted in fresco 
in the best taste, and at very moderate expense. 

This plastering ought not to be put on until the pis6 is 
completely dry, unless it be done in quick-lime, or lime 
very freshly slaked. 

A pise house has the double advantage of being soon 
finished and habitable, and of costing much less than an- 
other. It also furnishes, when it is pulled down, an ex- 
cellent manure for moist soils. I repeat, it is the true 
rural and rustic building, for the rich as well as for the 
poor, and that can be adopted in every country. It can 
also last centuries if it be well done. Not only many 
modern authors, and among others Rosier, affirm these 
advantages, but all the ancients have proved it, and Pliny 
the younger mentions, that Hannibal had built in Spain 
lanterns and towers upon the summits of mountains, 
which still were in existence in his day — which supposes 
at least three hundred years preservation. There is 
neither cement nor mortar, says he, which is harder 
than this earth, which resists rain, wind and fire. Cadet 
de Vaux mentions that the younger -Baily, a French 
physician who went into Spain to study the yellow fever, 
visited some years since the ruins of Saguntum, dismant- 
led more than two thousand years since, and could not 
detach a small sample of the pise of which they were 
originally formed, without the assistance of a chisel and 
mallet ; and in our days the siege of Lyons has proved 
the solidity of this species of construction, in resisting 
the efforts of the most formidable artillery: in truth, the 



78 THE farmer's and 

balls passed easily through the walls of pise, but did not 
shake them, while it upset easily and with a great crash 
those walls in round or hewn stone. At any rate, if, as 
it has been said in the beginning, it is desired, like Coia- 
tereau, to make pise beforehand under sheds, in small 
moulds, as well for greater facility as to secure greater 
hardness and a more equal compression, and to avoid the 
irregularities of the seasons, etc., this is what we have 
first to consider. Experience has generally proved that 
fine earth, being pressed to half its volume, as is neces- 
sary for greater solidity, weighs always from 120 to 160 
lbs. the cubic foot, according to the nature of the ele- 
ments which it contains ; now a cubic foot contains 1,728 
cubic inches— thus, an artificial stone or brick of pise, 
the fourth of a cubic foot, will weigh 30 to 40 lbs., which 
would still be a great deal to be handled easily by one 
person, as it would often be necessary. Besides, experi- 
ence has equally proved, that a person could do more 
work with small hewn stones, than with too large, in a 
given time ; wherefore it would be well to reduce ours to 
the fifth or even the sixth of a cubic foot ; they will still 
weigh 20 to 25 lbs. Now, if we are satisfied with a wall 
eighteen inches thick, which is suitable for many circum- 
stances, we can content ourselves with artificial stones of 
six inches wide, four inches thick, and twelve inches 
long, making 288 cubic inches, or one-sixth of a cubic 
foot ; in short, one of these stones lengthwise, and another 
across, and so on alternately in the construction of the 
wall, would enable us to keep exactly and alvvays this 
thickness of eighteen inches ; and if we wished to extend 
this thickness to two feet or reduce it to one, as partition 
walls would probably require, nothing would be easier, 
since in the first place it would be enough to put two stones 
end to end, and in the second, it would only be necessary 



79 

to put them one after the other in order to obtain the de- 
sired thickness. In any other case, it would be equally 
easy to arrange the lengths, breadths, and thickness of 
this kind of stone. Thus, a stone ten inches long, could 
be only five wide and five inches thick to make up, and if it 
was fourteen inches by seven, three inches thickness would 
be enough, in order not to exceed too much the prescrib- 
ed weight of 20 to 25 pounds. For partition walls, small 
pise stones of four inches thickness, by such length and 
breadth as would suit. Now that the size and weight of our 
pise stones are settled, we will goto work in the following 
way, viz : we will first make strong moulds, having the 
prescribed lengths and breadths in the clear, and a height 
at least double the thickness the stones are to have ; 
these moulds ought to be of good wood, well made and 
well mortised, in the same way as moulds for bricks. 
They must be filled with suitable fine earth, and struck 
off smooth without pressing it even with the upper sur- 
face of the mould. Next, press the earth tightly with 
the hand, then with a block fitting exactly the inside of 
the mould, compressing it to half its size either by means 
of a lever-press, mall, or other process that may be con- 
venient. Such are the m.eans pointed out by Cointereau, 
which are very easy to be understood and executed. 
What is more difficult is, after having pressed the block 
down sufficiently to reduce the brick of pise to the de- 
sired thickness, to take out the brick easily, as it often 
sticks very hard in consequence of the great compression. 
In order to accomplish this, recourse must be had to all 
the means employed in brick-yards in similar cases; 
sand or earth very fine or very dry must be used. Be- 
fore putting the earth into the moulds, the inside of the 
mould, the table upon which it is pressed, and the bot- 
tom of the block, must be well sprinkled with the drj 



m 

sand, etc. — the brick will then come out easily, by 
bearing upon the block and raising the mould, and pro 
vided that the mould is very little larger nnd longer be 
low. When the mould is taken off, the brick must bt 
taken in both hands Avith great care, and put upon a boarc 
to dry, as is done with bricks. If, after having employee 
all the means mentioned above, there should still be dif- 
ficulty in getting the brick out of the mould, it will be 
necessary to heat the mould and grease the inside, and 
there will be no further trouble. 

At the end of a few days, care must be taken ta turn 
these bricks upon their side, and upon the other sides in 
succession, in order that the drying may be complete. 
When they are very hard or very dry, they can be piled 
carefully against the wall, to remain until wanted for 
use ; then it will be the work of a few days only to raise 
the intended buildings, and nothing will remain but to 
cover them. 

It must be understood that, far the angles of the win- 
dows and dooi*s, suitable moulds and bricks of pise must 
be prepared ; and if need be, they may be cut with the 
saw, like true hewn stones. 

PISE HOUSES. 

In connection with the article upon this subject, Mr» 
Ellsworth's report will be found valuable. We cannot 
but believe this kind of building will become common in 
the West, and if experiments are made, we should be 
happy to learn of them. — Prairie Fanner. 

After selecting a suitable spot of ground, as neat the 
place of building as practicable, let a circle of ten feet or 
more be described. Let the loam be removed, and the 
clay dug up one foot thick ; or if clay is not found on the 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 81 

spot, let it be carted in to that depth. Any ordinary clay 
will answer. Tread this clay over with cattle, and add 
some straw cut six or eight inches long. After the clay 
is well tempered by working it with cattle, the material 
is duly prepared for making the brick. A mould is then 
formed of plank, of the size of the brick desired. In Eng- 
land, they are usually made eighteen inches long, one 
foot wide, and nine inches thick. I have found the more 
convenient size to be, one foot long, seven inches wide 
and five inches thick. The mould should have a bottom. 
The clay is then placed in the mould in the same manner 
that brick moulds are ordinarily filled. A wire or piece 
of iron hoop, will answer very well for striking off th^^ 
top. One man will mould about as fast as another cat 
carry away, two moulds being used by him. The brick, 
are placed upon the level ground, where they are suf- 
fered to dry two days, turning them up edgewise the sec- 
ond day ; and then packed in a pile, protected from the 
rain, and left to dry ten or twelve days, during which 
time the foundation of the building can be prepared. If 
a cellar is desired, this must be formed of stone or brick, 
one foot above the surface of the ground. For cheap 
buildings on the prairie, wood sills, twelve or fourteen 
inches wide, may be laid on piles or stones. This will 
form a good superstructure. Where lime and small stones 
abound, grout made of those materials (lime and stones) 
will answer very well. 

In all cases, however, before commencing the walls for 
the first story it is very desirable, as well in this case as 
in walls of brick, to lay a course of slate ; this will inter- 
cept the dampness so often rising in the walls of brick 
houses. The wall is laid by placing the brick lengtli- 
wise, thus making the wall one foot thick. Ordinary 
clay, such as is used for clay mortar, will suffice, though 
4* 



82 

a weak mortar of sand and lime, when these articles are 
cheap, is recommended as affording a more adhesive ma- 
terial for the plaster. The wall may safely be carried 
up one story, or two or three stories ; the division walls 
may be seven inches, just the width of the brick. The 
door and window frames being inserted as the wall pro- 
ceeds, the building is soon raised. The roof may be shin- 
gles or thatch. In either case, it should project over the 
sides of the house, and also over the ends, at least two 
feet, to guard the walls from vertical rains The exte- 
rior wall is plastered with good lime mortar, and and then 
with a second coat, pebble-dashed. The inside is plas- 
tered without dashing. The floors may be laid with oak 
boards, slit, five or six inches wide, and laid down with- 
out jointing or planing, if they are rubbed over with a 
rough stone after the rooms are finished . Doors of a cheap 
and neat appearance may be made, by taking two single 
boards of the length or width of the doors ; placing these 
vertically, they will fill the space. Put a wide batten on 
the bottom and a narrow one on the top, with strips on the 
side, and a strip in the middle. This door will be a batten 
door, but presenting two long panels on one side, and a 
smooth surface on the other. If a porch or veranda is 
wanted, it may be roofed with boards laid with light joints 
and covered with a thick paper dipped in tar, and then 
adding a good coat, after sprinkling it with sand from a 
sand-box or other dish with small holes. 

Houses built in this way are dry, warm in winter, and 
cool in summer, and furijish no retreats for vermin. Such 
houses can be made by common laborers — if a little car- 
pejnter's work is excepted — in a very short time, with a 
small outlay for materials, exclusive of floors, windows, 
doors, and roof. 

The question will naturally arise, Will the wall stand 



83 

against the rain and frost ? I answer, they have stood 
well in Europe, and the Hon. Mr. Poinsett remarked to 
me that he had seen them in South America, after hav- 
ing been erected 300 years. Whoever has noticed the 
rapid absorption of water by a brick that has been burned, 
will not wonder why brick walls are damp. The burn- 
ing makes the brick porous, while the unburnt brick is 
less absorbent ; but it is not proposed to present the un- 
burnt brick to the weather. Whoever has erected a 
building with merchantable brick, will at once perceive 
the large number of soft and yellow brick, partially 
burned, that it contains — brick that would soon yield to 
the mouldering influence of frost and storms. Such brick 
are, howevei^ placed within, beyond the reach of rain, 
and always kept dry. A good cabin is made by a single 
room, twenty feet square. A better on€ is eighteen feet 
wide and twenty-four feet long, cutting off eight feet on 
one end, for two small rooms, eight by eight each. 

How easily could a settler erect such a cabin on the 
western prairie, where clay is usually found about fifteen 
inches below the surface, and where stone and lime are 
often both very cheap. The article of brick for chimneys 
is found to be quite an item of expense in wood houses. 
In these mud houses no brick are needed, except for the 
top of the chimney, the oven, and casing of the fire-place 
— though this last might be well dispensed with. A ce- 
ment, to put around the chimneys, or to fill any other 
crack, is easily made by a mixture of one part of sand, 
two of ashes, and three of clay. This soon hardens, and 
will resist the weather. A little lard or oil may be added 
to make the composition still harder. 

Such a cottage will be as cheap as a log cabin, less 
expensive than pine buildings, and durable for centuries. 
I have tried the experiment in this city, by erecting a 



84 THE FARMER S AND 

building eighteen by fifty-four feet, two stories high, adopt- 
ing the different suggestions now made. Although many 
doubted the success of the undertaking, all now admit it 
has been very successful, and presents a convenient and 
comfortable building, that appears well to public view, 
and offers a residence combining as many advantages as 
a stone, brick, or wood house presents. I will add what 
Loudon says in his. most excellent work, the Encyclo- 
paedia of Agriculture, pp. 74 and 75 : 

" The great art in building an economical cottage, is 
to employ the kind of materials and labor which are 
cheapest in the given locality. In almost every part of 
the world, the cheapest article of which the walls can be 
made, will be found to be the earth on whiclt the cottage 
stands ; and to make good walls from the earth, is the 
principal art of the rustic or primitive builder. Soils, 
with reference to building, may be divided into two classes : 
clays, loams, and all such soils as can neither be called 
gravels nor sands, and sands and gravels. The former, 
whether they are stiff or free, rich or poor, mixed with 
stones or free from stones, may be formed into walls in 
one of these modes, viz : in the pise manner, by lumps 
moulded in boxes, and by compressed blocks. Sandy 
and gravelly soils may always be made into excellent 
walls, by forming a frame of boards, leaving a space be- 
tween the boards of the intended thickness of the wall,, 
and filling this with gravel mixed with lime mortar, or, 
if this cannot be got, with mortar made of clay and straw. 

" In all cases, when walls, either of this class or the 
former, are built, the foundations should be of stone or 
brick, and they should be carried up at least a foot above 
the upper surface of the platform." 

We shall here commence by giving one of the sim- 
plest modes of construction, from a work of a very excel- 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 85 

lent and highly estimable individual, Mr. Denson, of 
Waterbeach, Cambridgeshire, the author of the Peasant's 
Voice, who built his own cottage in the manner described 
below : 

" Mode of building the mud walls of cottages in Cam- 
bridges/lire. After a man has dug a sufficient quantity 
of clay for his purpose, he works it up with straw ; he is 
then provided with a frame eighteen inches in length, six 
deep, and from nine to twelve inches in diameter. In 
this frame he forms his lumps, in the same manner that 
a brick-maker forms his bricks ; they are then packed 
up to dry by the weather ; that done, they are fit for use, 
as a substitute for bricks. On laying the foundation of 
a cottage, a few layers of brick are necessary, to prevent 
the lumps from contracting a damp from the earth. The 
fire-place is lined and the oven is built with bricks. I 
have known cottagers, where they could get the grant of 
a piece of ground to build on for themselves, erect a cot- 
tage of this description at a cost of from £15 to £30. I 
examined one that was nearly completed, of a superior 
order ; it contained two good lower rooms and a chamber, 
and was neatly thatched with straw. It is a warm, firm, 
and comfortable building, far superior to the one I live 
in ; and my opinion is, that it will last for centuries. 
The lumps are laid with mortar, they are then plastered, 
and on the outside once roughcast ; which is done by 
throwing a mixture of water, lime, and small stones, 
against the walls, before the plaster is dry, which gives 
them a very handsome appearance. The cottage I ex- 
amined cost £33, and took nearly one thousand lumps to 
complete it. A laborer will make that number in two 
days. The roofs of cottages of this description are pre- 
cisely the same as when built with bricks or a wooden 
frame. Cow-house sheds, garden walls, and partition 



86 THE farmer's and 

fence, are formed with the same materials; -but in all 
cases the tops are covered with straw, which the thatchers 
perform in a very neat manner." — Benson's Peasants 
Voice, p. 31. 

MODE OF FENCING AND DITCHING. 

A good embankment, three feet high, with a ditch, fur- 
nishing a drain for surplus water, is made with astonishing 
rapidity. The embankment affords a foundation for a 
short post to hold two or three rails, which is found suffi- 
cient to inclose or exclude cattle. The machine to make 
the embankment need not cost over two dollars, including 
labor and materials. It may be constructed by any 
farmer, with the help of an axe and auger. It seems 
almost incredible that two planks twelve feet long, united 
at an angle of eighteen or twenty degrees, can throw up 
dirt with such facility. The wedge and inclined plane 
seem united, and the only difficulty is, to ascertain at 
what angle dirt will slide. The angle above mentioned 
will answer in most soils. If the angle should prove too 
obtuse, the brace in the rear might be so formed as to 
graduate the scraper as desired. If the planks are ex- 
tended in length, the height of the embankment may be 
increased, or the dirt thrown farther from the furrow, if 
the object is to turnpike the soil or to grade it for rails ; 
and it appears, that the machine will greatly lessen the 
expense of making roads on lands where large roots form 
no obstacle to the common plough, which precedes this 
scraper. To expedite turning at the end of the furrow, 
a bent lever, (a crooked joint will answer,) affixed about 
the centre, will raise the machine so as to turn on a point ; 
and much friction may be saved, by tacking to the land 
side a few inches of plank at the front and rear, or by 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 87 

excavating the land side in the middle, if made from a 
solid stick. 

A plough and scraper might be combined, but the same 
strength in two teams will be more desirable. When 
land is dear, the objection might arise that too much is 
wasted. This, however, will have no weight in the West, 
where land is plenty. Indeed, some in Europe have 
urged the benefit of sloping embankments, as they increase 
the surface for grazing ; which is an admitted fact, the 
sides of a hill being greater than its base. An excava- 
tion is made on both sides of the embankment. The ditch 
is eighteen inches only, and the embankment eighteen 
inches above the common surface, making an elevation 
from the bottom of the ditch, perpendicularly, of three 
feet, and giving a slope at ten degrees, of about four feet. 
The slope, in some soils, must not exceed thirty degrees, 
which will depend upon the soil. Less than this would 
expose the bank to crumble by the frost, and more would 
make the acclivity so small as to permit cattle to ascend 
it. Nor is the improvement in making the embankment 
alone worthy of special notice. The posts are bored with 
dispatch by one or more augers, propelled by hand or 
horse-power. The augers are two and a half inches, 
and these, by two apertures, make a mortise of five by 
two and a half; but the second hole is bored so as to ciit 
the circumference of the first, to lessen the chip between 
the two, which is easily removed by a chisel or hatchet. 
The rails are sharpened by a circular saw, by cutting 
one side so that when two rails are brought together, they 
just fit the mortise. The lap of the rails is about six 
inches, and makes a neat appearance ; additional strength 
is given by pinning the upper rail. If rails are cut twelve 
feet three inches, four hundred and forty panels will make 
a mile of fence. This will determine the number of posts 



88 

which are inserted in a furrow, when the fence is to be 
made six inches deep, before the ditch is commenced ; 
this will save all excavation for posts by hand, and, when 
the embankment is formed, the posts will be two feet in 
the ground. 

If the team can travel twelve miles per day, this will 
give six passages on each side of the embankment, and 
completes one mile in extent in a day. 

I will give an estimate of fencing different quantities 
of land. The size and shape of the tract materially affect 
the cost per acre. 

Two teams, $2 50 each, one day, (one with plough and one 

with scraper,) $5 00 

1,320 rails sharpened and delivered, at Mr. Robinson's estimate, 

two cents 26 40 

440 posts, bored complete, three cents 13 60 

Setting posts and putting in rails, five days 5 00 



Cost per mile 50 00 

Add for contingencies 25 per cent 12 50 



62 50 



1 section, d40 acres, 4 miles, cost ^250 00, per acre $0 39 

i „ 320 „ 3 „ „ 187 50, „ 58^ 



i „ 


160 


„ 2 


h » 


80 


„ H 


1-16 „ 


40 


„ 1 


1-32 „ 


20 


. 1 


1-64 „ 


10 


» i 



125 00, 
93 75, 
62 50, 
46 87, 
35 25, 



78 

1 17 

1 56 

2 39 

3 12i 



When roads or unoccupied land do not adjoin, the ex- 
penses will be reduced, since adjoining proprietors are 
bound to pay if they improve one-half the value of the 
fence. 

This estimate is made from common prairie land, which 
is not more than three miles from timber, and where the 



I 



69 

timber is good for splitting, and not over ten dollars per 
acre, and where the labor of mauling rails does not ex- 
ceed seventy-five cents per hundred. 

A sketch of the ditch, rails, fence, scraper, and augers, 
is given. Augers with sliding cutters are decidedly pref- 
erable. See plate I, figures 1 to 9. 

A very simple machine for boring posts may be seen 
by referring to figure 13, plate II. It may be constructed 
by an ordinary laborer. Between the uprights, the post 
to be bored is fastened. The auger is changed by raising 
the piece of scantling which holds down the same, and 
runs between two pieces of scantling fastened at one end 
by a hinge of leather or iron, and at the other by a pin. 
The holes are made to accommodate the wishes of the 
fence-maker, as to the number and distance of the rails. 
A 2^ inch auger is recommended, as this with two holes 
will make a mortise five by two and and a half inches. 
Any ordinary auger will answer, if a crank is affixed to 
the same. The simplicity and utility of this machine 
will recommend itself. 

PLATE I. 
Fig. 1. Fence. 
Fig. 2. Rails sharpened. 
Fig. 3. Auger with cutters. 
Fig. 4. Holes bored. 
Fig. 5. Post, ditch, and embankment. 
Figs. 6 and 7. Views of the scraper. 
Figs. 8 and 9. Views of the plough. 
Fig. 10. Surface of the ground. 

PLATE II, 

Fig. 10. Cheap wood mill. 
Fig. 11. End view of iron mill. 
Fig. 12. Front view of iron mill. 
Fig, 13, Post- boring machine. 



90 



THE FARMER S AND 
PLATE I, 
Figure 1. 



z: 



z 



5. 



X 



Figure 2. 



Figure 3. Figure 5. Figure 4. 

D 
D 




Figure 6 




Figure 7. 



IHE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 
Figure 8. 



91 




Figure 9. 



PLATE II. 
Figure 10. 




9jS 



THE FARMER'S AND 
Figure 11. 




Figure 12. 




T 



Figure 13. 




THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 93 

CHEAP RAIL FENCE, FOR LAND NEWLY CLEARED. 

As soon as a piece of land is chopped and cleared, it 
must be fenced in. This is accomplished by splitting 
into what are called rails, the lengths or cuts — generally 
eleven feet long — of black-ash, cedar, oak, elm, white- 
ash, cherry, or basswood ; or, when handy, poles will do 
in part, though rails are the best, and generally used. 
Rails made from the pine, maple, and beech, the two 
latter, are rarely seen. A straight fence of logs is some- 
times put up, being logs of any kind, (about from ten to 
fourteen inches in diameter) cut into lengths of twelve 
or fourteen feet. The rails are split by the axe, and 
iron and wooden wedges, with a large mallet or maul 
made of wood. Some cuts, depending of course on their 
freeness (easiness to split) and size, will yield from ten 
to fifty rails each. The rail fence is built in a zigzag 
manner, as follows : 




It is generally laid seven rails high, each rail placed 
above the other, and crossing at the corners, with one 
stake planted in the ground in the inside, and one on the 
outside, of each corner ; and on these stakes are placed 
riders, and the fence thus made is strong and steady. 
From corner to corner is called a "paweZ." Of these 
rails, and seven high — including two stakes, and two 
riders, to each panel, as above described — 100 rails will 
lay five rods, or eighty-two and a half feet of a fence, 
including in this the zigzag ; and it will be, to the top 
of the upper rider, above six feet high. Sometimes in 
place of stakes and riders, what are called " lockers'* 



94 THE farmer's and 

are put ; but this method, and any other variation, as well 
as log fences, will be best known on the spot. The 
above rail, stake, and rider fence is the ordinary one- 
We need not refer to a brush fence, to protect a crop of 
grain or potatoes, as it is not worthy the consideration of 
an industrious settler. 

FENCING THE PRAIRIES. 

BY JAMES T. GIFFORD. 




When a new settler makes a beginning on the prairie, 
the first object that calls for his attention is fencing. And 
the first objection raised by an eastern man to the prai- 
ries of the West is, that there is not sufficient timber for 
fencing. Much of this land must lie unoccupied for gene- 
rations for want of fencing. Now, Messrs. Editors, I am 
about to submit a plan by which the amount of timber we 
now have, may be mts.de to go much farther, and also by 
which good fence may be made of timber raised from the 
seed, or transplanted, in a few years. Having tried several 
experiments within the last five years, with a view to make 
the greatest amount of good fence from a given quantity 
of timber, and that with the least labor ; I have concluded 
that the following plan of construction, illustrated by the 
accompanying model, on the scale of one and a half 
inches to the foot, is decidedly the best I have tried. 1 
make the fence of either sawed or split stuff. Posts and 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 95 

braces about five feet long, and from two to three inches 
by five in size, and bars from six to eight feet in length, 
and from one to one and a half inches by five in size. The 
posts are mortised, and the bars fitted similarly to the 
usual manner for post and rail fence, except that one 
rail, to go next to the upper one, has one end tenoned 
longer than the others, which passes through the upper 
end of the brace before entering the post ; the brace hav- 
ing its lower end inserted into the ground about eight 
inches deep, and about one foot and a half from the line 
of the fence ; each post being set in the ground about four 
inches, and braced alternately on each side ; that is, one 
post is braced from one side, and the next from the oppo- 
site side. These keep the fence in an erect position, and 
sustain it against any pressure, often experienced from 
wind or cattle. I have fence which has been set in this 
manner for two years past, and it stands better than any I 
have ever seen with posts set deep in the ground. Among 
the advantages of this kind of fence are the following : 
The stuff being short, much timber can be worked into it 
which cannot be worked into ordinary rails ; and the 
fence need not be over half the weight of common fence, 
it not depending on its weight to make it substantial, and 
being more easily split. The fence will also stand much 
longer, as where posts depend upon strength at the surface 
of the ground, and become old and partially decayed, the 
wind or the crowding of cattle is apt to break them off; 
while on this plan, the fence being braced near the top, 
stands firmly, though light ; and there being no purchase 
upon either post or brace, it will stand erect until both 
are completely decayed. 

I bore the posts and braces with a machine by horse 
power, and tenon the rails with the same. With this ma- 
chine, fence may be prepared for setting, after the tim- 



96 

ber is split or sawed, at an expense of one shilling pei' 
rod. 

Good substantial fence may be seen on the farm of 
Hezekiah Gifford, at Elgin, made from locust timber, 
which he has grown from seed planted seven years ago 
last May. 

0^ Mr. Gifford wishes us to state, what he failed to 
do, in relation to the size of the timber necessary to make 
the fence of which he treats in this number, that a locust 
pole, about five inches through, will make two rails — be- 
ing split through the centre. His object is to convince 
farmers that it will not be necessary for to wait fifteen or 
twenty years for rail stuff to grow. Locust timber is 
easy to work and split, while green ; but when seasoned 
is little less hard than iron, and will split but a little 
easier — hence it is very valuable for fence, when it is 
desirable to save timber. Mr. Gifford proposes to make 
the lengths of his fence about six or eight feet. — From the 
Prairie Farmer. 

IMPROVED MODE OF FENCING. 

While the cultivation of timber land will be hastened 
by the new method, heretofore described, of making pot 
and pearl ashes, where the preservation of wood is not an 
object of interest, an improved mode of fencing the prai- 
ries gives great facilities for converting what has been 
hitherto deemed almost waste land to immediate use ; and 
when it is considered that, as appears by an estimate made 
at the land-offiice, there are in four States and two Ter- 
ritories, 39,000,000 of acres of prairie lands, viz : in Illi- 
nois 11,000,000 acres, in Indiana 5,000,000, in Missouri 
9,000,000, in Arkansas 4,000,000, in Wisconsin and Iowa, 
restricted to surveyed lands alone, each, 5,000,000 acres, 
some of which are quite remote from timber, it must be 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 9T 

matter of congratulation, especially from those States, as 
also to the United States, still holding portions, to know- 
that such lands can now be inclosed with one-fourth the 
expense of a Virginia fence. Where a section of 640 
acres is inclosed, it may be done at a cost not exceeding 
forty cents per acre, where the labor and materials are 
all purchased. The fence now recommended is com. 
posed of a ditch and embankment of three feet high, or a 
fence three feet high on the top of the embankment. The 
hedge fence so much commended in Europe, will not an- 
swer for the prairies, as the weeds grow up with the hedge, 
and thus furnish much fuel to consume the hedge in its 
earlier growth, or even in its more matured condition ; 
and this will be the case until general cultivation pro- 
tects the prairie from annual fires. The ditch, too, of 
itself alone, is a poor defence against the effect of frost, 
and the attacks of cattle. A combination of the two 
seems to offer all the advantages of both, as the soil is 
drained by the ditch, and the same forms in part the fence, 
thus saving much timber. 

It requires 26,500 rails to inclose a section of land with 
the Virginia panel equal to eight rails, stake and rider, 
whereas, it takes only three rails for a panel on the plan 
of the ditch and embankment ; nor is this all^ the rails on 
the embankment need not be over one- half the size of 
those in a Virginia or worm fence. The great saving 
will be apparent when we reflect, that four panels of 
Virginia fence are equal in distance to three panels of 
fence made straight. Three rails on the embankment are 
sufficient. Hence, nine rails on the latter plan are equal 
to forty on the former one ; and when the difference in 
the size are taken into consideration, the proportion will 
not be over four and a half to forty, making a saving in 
timber, carting and hauling, etc. almost incredible. In 
\5 



99 THE FARMERS AND 

the success of such a plan, the United States are deeply 
interested ; for it niust add millions of dollars to the 
treasury, besides enhancing the value of land now likely 
to remain a long time without improvement, and saving 
from destruction the vast quantities of timber which the 
inclosure of the prairie in the ordinary mode of fencing 
would require. This plan, having been made the sub- 
ject of great attention, and found to answer the purpose, 
can be safely recommended. The machinery to accom- 
plish all this as described will not exceed $10, and may 
be constructed by ordinary workmen. Drawings of the 
plough and scraper, and the machinery of its construction, 
with a description in full of the manner of making the 
fence, will be found in Document No. 13. A model, also, 
of full size, of both the fence as standing and the various 
machinery, may be seen at the patent-office. A letter 
from a gentleman at the West, (see Document No. 14,) 
fully sustains the above opinion of its practicability. 

RAIL FENCE. 

In many parts of the country, where rocks are not 
plenty, farmers are obliged to make wooden fences, and 
the time of cutting them is important. Posts, in particu- 
lar, in some kinds of soil, are very expensive, as they 
require to be renewed once in four or five years. In 
clayey ground, they will stand a dozen years, and in wet 
meadows fifty. When posts are used, they should never 
be put in the ground in a green state, notwithstanding 
they will last longest in wet ground. Constant wet from 
water will not hurt them, but the fermentation of the 
natural sap in the wood is injurious. When posts with 
three rails are wanted, it is good economy to purchase or 
make them a foot longer than the common length, so as 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 99 

to admit of their being sharpened at each end. They 
will last twice as long when so cut ; and they cost but 
a trifle more than the common kind. 

Posts are so liable to rot, and break ofl^, that in some 
parts of the country, where timber is plenty, crooked or 
worm fences are made of rails without posts. An obtuse 
angle is made in each length of the fence, and the rails 
are placed one upon another as children build cob houses ; 
the smallest rails being placed at the bottom, and the 
largest at the top ; five rails are thus placed one upon 
the other. When heavy rails are placed at the top, they 
will often remain in place without staking up ; but it is 
more common to set a pair of stakes at each angle, and 
tie them together at the top, with a withe or a little yoke. 
The Virginians have very generally used their rails in 
this manner ; and at the north it is called Virginia fence. 

In speaking of the importance of letting timber for 
posts become dry, before it is put into the ground, we 
ought also to name in connection with it, the importance 
of suffering the sills of a house and other buildings, to 
become dry before they are used. It is true, we now set 
buildings higher than we formerly did, and we take 
smaller timber for sills, and both these practices tend to 
favor the durability of the timber — yet we are often 
obliged to put in new sills; and this labor maybe saved. 
In ancient times, the largest sticks of timber that could 
be found were placed at the bottom, on the principles of 
pyramid building : it seems to have been supposed that 
this gave the building strength. And it is not uncom- 
mon to find, on pulling down an ancient meeting-house, 
sills twelve inches square. There was not only no need 
of such timbers in such a position, but they were not 
worth half as much as timbers half their size. When 
the building was set low, the sill would never become 

LofC. 



100 

dry, and the sap would ferment in it, until it would 
cause decay. Many of these old houses are found to 
have rotten sills. A stick of timber eight inches square 
is better for any building, as a sill, than a stick twelve 
inches square ; and the first has not half the number of 
square inches. 

SOW BLUE GRASS ON YOUR BANK FENCE. 
One of the reasons why sod fence will stand no better, 
is owing to the fact, that the turf made by the wild grass 
is not sufficiently tenacious at the surface. The roots ot 
it are tough, but are very large and long. The great 
proportion of them are perpendicular, and not lateral or 
horizontal. Consequently, although they form a very 
strong turf, it is not a turf which holds the earth well» 
when there is any chance for the rain to act upon it. 
Blue grass, on the contrary, forms a very thick turf at 
the surface, which is precisely the place wanted by the 
covering of a sod fence. The winter is a good time to 
sow the seed, particularly on the snow, if there should 
be any. 

WHITEWASH YOUR COTTAGES. 

Log houses pointed with lime, though apparently tight, 
admit much wind and water, in consequence of the logs 
seasoning and shrinking from the lime, or the lime be- 
coming loose from the logs. To make them tight, apply 
whitewash as thick as can be laid on, which will fill the 
small cracks and cement the loose mortar to the logs. . 
Salt should be put in the water befoi'e slaking the lime ' 
in it, which is said to make it hard and durable. Skim- ■ 
milk or glue, is also thought to be useful. 

HEN HOUSES. 
If you wish a hen-house that will keep your fowls safe ' 



II 



THE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 101 

from their foes, winged or four-footed, elevate it on posts 
two and a half or three feet above the ground, with a hole 
underneath through the floor, for them to enter. No animal 
will jump up into it, or owl or hawk find the way in. I have 
known flocks of hens destroyed in a few nights by the 
mink, in roosts built upon the ground, in the ordinary 
manner. 

BUILD BARNS. 

A barn will pay for itself in about two years — in this 
way : you save ten dollars worth of manure, you save 
twenty dollars worth of fodder, and you save about fifty 
dollars worth of grain from rotting and wasting from being 
threshed on the ground, in a year. In two years this 
amounts to one hundred and sixty dollars, which will build 
a barn thirty feet by forty. Not only this, it adds a great 
deal to the comfort of your stock to be kept in a warm 
barn, in a cold winter night. Neither does it require so 
much fodder for your cattle when they are kept warm, 
which is another great saving. 

ICE HOUSES. 

There is an indifferent, good, better, and best way of 
doing everything ; and judging from the success of ice- 
keepers, we should suppose the mode of constructing ice- 
houses had not uniformly been adopted in this country. 
It is very often the case, that ice is not kept beyond mid- 
summer. This is owing, in every instance, to the want 
of requisite information in building houses of materials 
which are not too great conductors of heat. In beginning 
to build, it is not onl)^ necessary to " count the cost," but 
it is very important for every one to ask himself, what he 
wishes to accomplish before he commences, lest his labor 
be lost. The common plan is, to dig in the earth some 



102 THE farmer's and 

eight or ten feet, and build a house from the bottom, ex- 
tending from four to ten feet above the surface. The 
earth and all the materials, on this plan, are too swift 
conductors of heat to completely secure the ice. The 
better plan is to construct a building entirely above ground. 
One house should be built in another^the walls being 
eighteen or twenty inches asunder, and this space filled 
with pulverized charcoal or tan bark. The floor should 
be filled some twelve or fifteen inches, and a layer of tan 
bark thrown over it to the depth of a few inches. This 
kind of a floor will completely absorb the moisture and 
keep the air dry. Rye straw makes an excellent roof. 
No matter how coarse and cheap the materials are. A 
good ice-house may be built of logs. 



THE DAIRY 



couFsisma 



THE MANAGEMENT OF COWS, 

MAKING OF BUTTER, 
MAKING OF VARIOUS KINDS OF CHEESi;, 

THE CARE OF A DAIRY, 



SKX VSO. ETCti 



CHAPTER V. 

THE DAIRY. 

In this department, we shall present such hints and in- 
structions as are entitled to entire confidence. All that 
follows has been gathered from the best possible sources. 

MILKING COWS. 

The owners of cows should pay particular attention to 
milking. Children should not be trusted with this busi- 
ness, and there are many grown people who never milk 
well, though they have been brought up to the business. 

If you would obtain all the milk from the cow, you must 
treat her with the utmost gentleness ; she must not stand 
trembling under your blows nor under your threats. She 
may at times need a little chastisement, but at such times 
you need not expect all her milk. 

Soon after the bag has been brushed by your hand, and 
the ends of the teats have been moistened a little with 
milk, it flows in rapidly, and all the veins or ducts near 
the teats are completely filled. Then it must be drawn 
out immediately or you will not get the whole. You must 
not sit and talk — you must not delay one moment, if you 
would have all the cow is then ready to yield. 

The udder should be moved in every direction at the 

close of milking, and the hands may beat it a little, in 

imitation of the beating which the calf gives it when he 

is sucking. An expert milker will make the cow give 

5* 



106 THE farmer's and 

one quarter more in butter than a majority of grown milk- 
ers will. 

One season, at Framingham, says an experienced writer, 
we kept four cows in the home lot ; there was but little 
difference in the quantity of milk given by each. We 
had a very steady hired man of forty years of age ; he had 
carried on a farm in New-Hampshire, and had always 
been used to milking ; but he was so slow the cows had 
no patience with him. 

We milked two of the cows and he the other two, and 
ive were but little more than half as long as he in milk- 
ing, though we got the largest mess by about one quart. 
On our remonstrating, that he did not draw out all the 
milk, he said his cows would not yield so much as those 
milked by us. We then made an exchange ; he milked 
our two, and we milked his. In three weeks time the 
case was reversed ; our mess exceeded his by nearly one 
quart. He never failed to strip his cows to the last drop ; 
but his intolerable moderation prevented his obtaining what 
an active milker would have done. 

Young learners may practice on cows that are soon to 
be dried off. They should be taught at first how to take 
hold of the teats, and they will remember it ; but how 
common it is to let each child choose his own mode of 
milking ! Learners should know that the hand should be 
kept very near the extremity of the teat, if they would 
milk with ease. The left arm should always press gently 
against the leg of the cow ; for if she is inclined to kick, 
she cannot, vvith any force ; she cannot strike an object 
that l^ans against her ; but if she raises up her foot, as 
she often will when her teats are sore, the milker will be 
ready to ward off and keep it from the pail, much better 
than when he sits far cff from'the cow. 

If heifers are made tame and gentle by frequent hand. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 107 

ling when they are young, they are not apt to kick the 
milker ; their udders should be rubbed gently before 
calving; it is quite as grateful to them as carding. But 
if they are suffered to run wild till after they have calved, 
they cannot be expected to be gentle when you first at- 
tempt to milk them : they often acquire bad habits, and are 
not broken of them through life. 

BUTTER-MAKING IN ORANGE COUNTY 

The Milk-Room. — It is all-important that this should 
be coolj dry, and moderately light, with a free circulation 
of air. Mine, says a Duchess county writer, is in the 
cellar of my farm-house, ventilated by means of two 
windows about two feet square on the north side, and 
a like window, and a lattice-door on the south side ; all 
covered on the outside with wire-gauze, fine enough 
to exclude the flies. The floor is formed by a layer 
of small stones, six inches deep, well grouted, (that is, 
a mortar of lime and sand, thin enough to run freely, 
is poured upon the stones until they are entirely cov- 
ered with it,) and when dry, a thin covering of water- 
lime cement is put upon it, and made smooth with the 
trowel. This costs little, if any more than a plank floor, 
and effectually keeps out both rats and mice ; and as 
water does not injure it, it is easily kept perfeqtly clean 
and sweet. The milk-pans stand upon marble slabs, 
raised upon brick-work, about two feet from the floor, 
and the butter is worked upon a marble table. A pump 
is placed at one end of the room, bringing the water 
through a lead pipe from the bottom of the well ; and the 
water discharged, runs the whole length of the cellar in 
a channel prepared for the purpose, when the floor was 
cemented, and escapes through a fine iron grate, cemented 
into the floor, over the mouth of the drain. The churn 



108 THE farmer's and 

Stands in the milk-room, and is worked by a dog-power 
machine, on the outside of the building. The milk-room 
should be used exclusively for dairy purposes. 

Dairy Utensils. — The cows are milked into wooden 
pails, not painted on the inside, and kept perfectly sweet. 
They must be thoroughly cleansed, dried, and aired, 
morning and evening ; and never be used for any other 
purpose. The pans should be shallow, with sides much 
more slanting than the usual pattern of pans which we 
see at the tin-shops, and be kept as bright as silver ; they 
also must be well aired in the sun. 

The Milk. — This must stand in the pans, undisturhed, 
until the whole of the cream has risen ; (some of our best 
dairy-women say until it is " lopjpered,''^ or thick,) both 
milk and cream are then put into the churn together, at a 
temperature of about fifty-five of Fahrenheit; the churn 
is then worked with a rapid stroke, say from 60 to 75 per 
minute, until the butter " begins to come," when the brake 
is put upon the wheel, and the churn is worked more and 
more moderately, until the butter is entirely separated 
from the buttermilk. Upon taking the butter from the 
churn, it is washed with cold water, salted, and thoroughly 
worked with a loooden ladle, upon the marble table. It 
must never be worked with the hand, as the warmth of 
the hand will injure it. It is then set aside in a cool place, 
until the next day, when it is again, in like manner, 
worked until every drop of the buttermilk is extracted. 
It is then fit for packing away, or for use. The butter 
must at no time be allowed to get soft. 

CHURNING MACHINE. 

BY JAS. BI. THOMAS. 

A, fly-wheel, may be made of oak plank or any heavy 
timber. C, lever to which the churn-dash is attached. 



THK emigrant's HAND-BOOK 



109 




D, gearing, which may be common fanning-mill gearing. 
F, pitman which communicates the motion of the crank 
E to the lever C, which is attached to the back part of 
the frame G. The crank should be three inches from 
centre, so that it may perform a circle of six inches. By 
attaching this machine to dog or sheep-power, cog-wheels 
will be unnecessary, as the shaft of a sheep or dog-power 
may be fastened to the crank. The cost of this machine 
is $6, without the churn. These machines are of my in- 
vention and construction, and are not patented. 
Wyoming', Stark Co., 111., Feb. 17, 1844. 



VERMONT BUTTER. 

The county of Caledonia, in Vermont, has long been 
celebrated for its dairies, and its butter and cheese have 
frequently taken large prizes at Agricultural fairs. 

In the dairy of Mr. W. Backop, who has obtained five 
premiums at Boston, for butter; two of 8X00 each, and 
three of $50 each ; the milk in warm weather stands 
thirty hours before the cream is taken from it ; and in 
cold weather, forty-eight hours. In the hot season, in 
this dairy, six pounds of salt are allowed to one hundred 
pounds of butter, and in cold weather four pounds. No 



110 THE FAEMEr's and 

saltpetre is used, but about a pound of finely powdered 
loaf-sugar is sprinkled into each hundred pounds of butter. 

The cream is churned in the old-fashioned wooden hand 
churn, worked in cold water, which is repeatedly drained 
off until the buttermilk entirely disappears. It is then 
packed in firkins, which hold from thirty to fifty pounds. 
It is packed so as to be very solid, and the surface of the 
butter in the firkin is covered with a thin white cloth, 
over which fine salt is spread. 

Caledonia butter always commands a high price in 
market. The summer yield of butter from one common 
cow, varies from one hundred to one hundred and twenty- 
five pounds each, taking an average of heifers and cows. 

0:^ It is important that every particle of buttermilk be 
worked out. But if. is equally important that the butter he 
not overworked, as it leaves it tough, and stringy, and 
sticky. 

The importance of making good butter is so great, that 
no apology is necessary for subjoining the statements ot 
some celebrated butter-makers, as recorded in the trans- 
actions of the New- York State Agricultural Society. 
Much valuable information will be gained, by carefully 
reading them. 

MR. Lansing's statement. 

1. The number of cows kept is ten. 

2. Keep them stabled through the inclement season ; 
feed them from three to four times per day with good hay 
or green stalks ; when near coming in, add some oats, 
barley, or corn cracked. In summer, good pasture, with 
living water accessible at all times, and plenty of salt. 

3. Treatment of milk and cream before churning. 
Strain the milk in tin pans ; place them in a cool cellar 
for the crearq to rise. When sufficiently risen, separate 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. Ill 

the cream from the milk ; put it in stone jars, well pre- 
pared, before churning. 

4. The mode of churning in summer. Rinse the churn 
with cold water ; then turn in the cream, and add to each 
jar of cream put in the churn full one-fourth of the same 
quantity of cold water. The churn used is a patent one, 
moved by hand with a crank, having paddles attached, 
and so constructed as to warm the milk, if too cold, with 
hot water, without mixing them together. The milk and 
cream receive the same treatment in winter as in summer ; 
and in churning, use hot instead of cold water, if neces- 
sary. 

5. The method of freeing the butter from the milk, is 
to wash the butter with cold water till it shows no color of 
the milk, by the use of a ladle. 

G. Salting of the butter. Use the best kind of Liver- 
pool sack salt ; the quantity varies according to the state 
in which the butter is taken from the churn ; if soft, more, 
if hard, less, always taking the taste for the surest guide. 
Add no saltpetre, nor other substances. 

7. The best time for churning is the morning, in hot 
weather, and to keep the butter cool till put down. 

8. The best mode of preserving butter in and through 
the summer and winter, is as follows : The vessel is a 
stone jar, clean and sweet. The mode of putting it down 
is to put in a churning of butter, and put on strong brine ; 
let it remain on until the next churning is ready to put 
down, and so on till the jar is filled ; then cover it over 
with fine salt, the same to remain on till used. 

JACOB T. LANSING. 

Watervliet, Jan., 1842. 



112 

MR. MERRIFIELD's STATEMENT. 

Number of cows. Eight. 

Mode of keeping. In pasture, in summer ; on hay, 
straw and roots, in winter. 

Treatment of cream and milk. Milk strained into tin 
pans, and placed in the cellar. 

Mode of churning. The cream only churned, in a 
Dutch churn. 

Method of freeing the butter from the milk. By pres- 
sure. 

Quantity and kind of salt. Liverpool sack, one ounce 
to the pound. 

Best time of churning. Morning, in summer. 

Best mode of keeping. In the cellar, in summer, in 
wood. 

In winter, our milk stands twelve hours ; is then re- 
moved to the stove, and scalded over a slow fire to near 
boiling heat ; the pans removed to the cellar to cool ; the 
cream only churned. The butter, placed in the coldest 
part of the house, will keep good any length of time. 

WILLIAM MERRIFIELD. 

Guilderland, Jan., 1842. 

MR. LYON's statement. 

To the Committee for the Examination of Butter : 

In submitting to your consideration the following report, 
I would remark, that at the time of my leaving home, I 
had no intention of entering the list of competitors, and 
that the tub of butter exhibited for your inspection was 
manufactured without any reference whatever to this ex- 
hibition ; was made during my absence from home, in our 
ordinary way of making butter. My soil, part sand, 
heavy pine ridge, on which clover grows luxuriantly, and 
part black loam, and part clay, nearly equal in propor- 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 113 

tion, sloping westwardly. With. the exception of five or 
six weeks in the season, water may be found plenty in my 
pastures; during the dry seasons, my cows have access 
to water morning and evening, and at midday, if they 
choose. My hours for milking are very regular, viz: 
commencing at early light in the morning, and in time 
to get througli before dark in the evening. My dairy 
numbers twenty cows, seven of which were milked for 
the first time this season ; their age three years old ; the 
ages of the remainder average from five to ten years. I 
fattened all my calves to the age of six weeks. The lat- 
ter part of winter, and through the spring, my cows are 
fed about one peck of ruta-bagas each ; salted regularly 
once a week in winter, and twice in summer. I think 
salting regularly, as often as above stated, to be very es- 
sential, as conducive to good health ; and during the 
milking season, it tends to produce a uniformity in the 
quantity of milk, and in my estimation adds, in no small 
degree, to the quality of the milk. The average product 
of my cows this season is 100 lbs. per cow, besides what 
I have used in a family of from eight to ten persons. My 
milk-house is what is termed a plank building, clap- 
boarded ; ceiled about three feet from the floor ; the re- 
mainder of the room lathed and plastered. My shelves 
about six inches wide and five between, so constructed as 
to admit a free circulation of air. My buildings are on a 
rise of ground of sufficient height, so as not to require 
drains to my cellars. 1 have a cellar under my milk- 
house the entire size of my building, with wall of round 
stone, laid without mortar, to the depth of six feet. In the 
centre of the building, 1 have a place about three feet 
square, to admit the cool air from the cellar, over which 
I have a table, where the milk is strained, butter worked, 
etc. The milk I require to be strained as soon as pos- 



114 'THE farmer's and 

sible after milking, in tin pans, about three quarts to each 
pan ; it stands until the milk is slightly turned, the time 
required depending on the temperature of the weather. 

Churning performed every day, (Sundays excepted.) 
I would here remark, when cows are regularly salted, 
as I have before stated, I have never known an instance 
of any extreme difficulty in obtaining butter. After it is 
obtained, it is immediately taken from the buttermilk, all 
the milk worked off that is practicable at the time, (which 
in some respect depends upon the temperature of the 
weather,) salted to the taste, and placed in a cool cellar 
until the next day, when the buttermilk is entirely worked 
out by the use of a ladle, and then packed solid in tubs. 

The kind of salt I use is obtained in Albany, and goes 
by the name of sack salt, sold in parcels weighing from 
200 to 300 lbs. After the tub is filled, the butter is kept 
covered with brine sufficient to keep the air entirely ex- 
cluded, especially that made during the warm part of the 
season. My tubs are placed in the coolest part of my 
cellar. Butter made and protected in this way, I have 
no hesitation in saying, will keep sweet one, two, or three 
years. 

CHARLES LYON. 

Oswegatchie, St. Lawrence Co., Jan., 1842. 

REPORTS ON CHEESE. 



Number of cows kept, eleven. Cheese made from two 
milkings, in the English manner ; no addition made of 
cream. For a cheese of twenty pounds, a piece of rennet, 
about two inches square, is soaked about twelve hours in 
one pint of water. As rennets differ much in quality, 
enough should be used to coagulate the milk sufficiently 
in about forty minutes. No salt is put into the cheese, 



THE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 115 

nor any on the outside during the first six or eight hours 
it is being pressed ; but a ihin coat of fine Liverpool salt 
is kept on the outside during the remainder of the time it 
remains in press. The cheeses are pressed forty-eight 
hours, under a pressure of seven or eight cwt. Nothing 
more is required but to turn the cheeses once a day on 
the shelves. 

H. P. (fe G. ALLEN. 

Duanesburgh, Jan. 17, 1842. 

MR. Marvin's statement. 

The milk strained in large tubs over night ; the cream 
stirred in milk, and in morning strained in same tub ; 
milk heated to natural heat ; add color and rennet ; curd 
broke fine and whey off, and broke fine in hoop with fast 
bottom, and put in strainer ; pressed twelve hours ; then 
taken from hoop, and salt rubbed on the surface ; then 
put in hoop, without strainer, and pressed forty-eight 
hours ; then put on tables, and salt rubbed on surface, 
and remain in salt six days, for cheese weighing thirty 
pounds. The crushings are saved, and set and churned, 
to grease the cheese. The above method is for making 
one cheese per day. 

DANIEL MARVIN. 

Cooperstown, January, 1842. 

MR. hardy's statement. 

The number of cows kept is thirty-eight. Cheese made 
from two milkings — no addition of cream. The quantity 
of salt used was one teacup-full to twenty pounds of curd, 
of common Onondaga salt. The rennet was prepared bv 
soaking one rennet in a jar of five or six quarts filled with 
salt and water. From one pint to one quart was used, 
according to the strength of the rennet. The cheeses 



116 THE FARMER S AND 

were pressed in a common wheel and lever press, and 
pressed two days. The cheeses were taken from the 
press, and rubbed with annatto, soaked in strong ley ; 
then rubbed with whey butter, and turned and rubbed 
daily through the season with the same. 

PHINEAS HARDY. 

Le Ray, Jefferson Co., Jan. 10, 1842. 

CHEESE MAKING. 

Mr. A. F. Bill, in the October number of the New 
Genesee Farmer, says : — " In the morning take off the 
cream with a skimmer, and put it in a vessel by itself; 
then, warm the milk, or a part of it, over a slow fire till 
about blood heat; then pour in the cream, and stir it 
moderately till there are no particles to be seen floating 
upon the surface." 

It seems to me evident, that when the cream is once 
separated from the milk, it can never be so thoroughly 
incorporated with it again, as to set the milk as soon as 
taken from the cow. 

Our method is this : Immediately after the cows are 
milked at night, (and the quicker the operation is per- 
formed the better,) we strain it into the cheese- tub and 
put in the rennet — as the milk when it first comes from 
the cow is in precisely the right temperature to set. If the 
rennet is good, and properly prepared, a lare table-spoon- 
ful is sufficient for a pail-full of milk. The tub should 
then be covered with a cloth and allowed to stand undis- 
turbed — in about forty minutes it will coagulate. It is 
then carefully cut, the tub again covered and left to stand 
till morning. When the tub is wanted for the morning's 
milk, the night's curd is dipped into the cheese basket, or 
cheese-sink, to drain, and the morning's milk strained 
into the same tub. The rennet is then put on, going 
through the same process as with the night's milk. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 117 

When sufficiently drained, the two curds are ready to be 
put together, scalded and salted according to the discre- 
tion of the maker. 

Those who have had the least experience in the man- 
agement of milk, must know that warming it after it has 
once cooled, gives it a tendency to sour the quicker. 
Any person who will take the trouble to try the experi- 
ment, will find that curd, made from milk warm from 
the cow, will keep sweet, much longer than that which 
has been warmed over the fire ; and, besides this, it saves 
the time and trouble of skimming and warming. Noth- 
ing will make a good cheese-maker assume a belligerent 
attitude so quick, as to see the skimmer flourished over 
the cheese-tub. 

From a long experience in a moderate sized dairy, I 
am persuaded that in no way can so ^nuch, or cheese of 
so good quality be made, as to set the milk while warm 
from the cow. 

THE EMIGRANT CHEESE. 

The following improved method of making cheese is 
!rom the Portland Transcript. We shall only say, in ad- 
dition to the remarks therein offered, that the process, as 
described by the writer, has been repeatedly tried with 
flattering success to the emigrant. Cheese made in this 
way, possesses many and important advantages, inas- 
much as it requires no hoops nor press. 

NEW METHOD OF MAKING CHEESE. 

We have lately seen a method of making cheese, 
which is worthy of being tested by experiment at this 
season of the year, especially by those who have but a 
small quantity of milk. It is very simple, and easily 
tried. The milk is set in the ordinary way every morn- 



119 THE PARMER S AND 

ing, and the curd separated from the whey as well as 
can be with the hands. It is then pressed compactly in- 
to the bottom of an earthen pot, and covered over with 
several folds of dry linen, or cotton cloth. By tliis pro- 
cess the remaining whey is absorbed, and when the cloth 
becomes saturated it is removed, and a dry one placed in 
its stead. In the course of the day and night, this pro- 
cess removes the whey as thoroughly as it can be done 
by pressing. The next morning the milk is prepared in 
the same manner, and the curd packed closely upon the 
top of that prepared the day previous ; and the same 
method pursued in separating the moisture. This process 
is repeated till you have a cream-pot full of cheese. It is 
thus seen to be a convenient method where the dairy wo- 
man has the milk of but one or two cows. If it work 
well, it is an important discovery. If it fail, it need not 
be a very disastrous failure. It is a very successful way 
of preserving the cheese from flies and mice, as it can 
be perfectly inclosed and kept from such gentry, and 
from the air and light. We have seen but one experi- 
ment of this kind, and this promises to be a successful 
one. The cheese appeared as free from moisture, and 
as solid as that made by the press. The labor is much 
less, and the care of it afterward is comparatively no- 
thing. 

TO MAKE SAGE CHEESE. 

Take the tops of sage, and press the juice from themi 
by beating in a mortar ; do the same with leaves of spi^ 
nach, and mix the two juices together. After putting the 
rennet to the milk, pour in some of this juice, regulatino 
the quantity by the color and taste to be given to the 
cheese. As the curd appears, break it gently and in an 
equal manner ; then, emptying it into the cheese- vat, lei 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 119 

it be a little pressed, in order to make it eat mellow. 
Having stood for about seven hours, salt and turn it daily 
for four or five weeks, when it will be fii to eat. The 
spinach, besides improving the flavor and correcting th6 
bitterness of the sage, will give a much finer color than 
can be obtained from sage alone. 



I 



HOUSEHOLD DEPARTMENT- 



COMPRISING 



COOKERY- PICKLING, MAKING SOAP, 



MAKING CLOTH, 



DYEING 



■TC. BTC Wise 



CHAPTER VI 



WEIGHT AND MEASURE 

Jr. s all families are not provided with scales and weights, 
we subjoin a list of weights and measures. 

DRY MEASURE. 

Wheat flour one pound is one quart. 

Indian meal one pound, two ounces, is. ..one quart. 

Butter, when soft one pound, one ounce, is one quart. 

Loaf-sugar, broken one pound is one quart. 

White sugar, powdered.... one pound, one ounce, is ,. one quart. 

Best brown sugar one pound, two ounces, is.. .one quart. 

Eggs ten eggs are one pound. 

LIQUID MEASURE. 

Sixteen large table-spoonfuls are »half a pint. 

Eight large table-spoonfuls are one gill. 

Four large table -spoonfuls are half a gUl. 

A common- sized tumbler holds half a pint. 

A common-eized wine-glass half a gill. 



HOW TO MAKE BREAD. 

Bread is the most important article for daily use ; and 
great pains should be taken in making it. There are 
few good bread-makers, and a few hints may be useful. 



124 THE farmer's and 

A bushel of good wheat will make fifty-six pounds of 
flour, besides the bran and middlings. If you get your 
wheat ground at a custom-mill, always weigh it. The 
toll usually taken for grinding at custom-mills, is one- 
tenth. It varies slightly from this in some places, bul 
not materially. 

Adulterated flour can be tested as follows: If there be 
wliUing in it, dip the ends of the fore-finger and thumb in 
sweet oil, and take up a small quantity of flour between 
them. If it be pure, it will turn nearly black ; if whiting 
be in it, it will not change color. 

Plaster of Paris in flour, can be detected by dropping 
a little sharp vinegar on it ; if it is pure, it will not effer- 
vesce. 

Another good way to test the purity of flour, is to take 
a handful of it, and squeeze it tightly together. If it is 
good, it will retain the form which the squeezing gave it. 
Sour or musty flour can be known by the smell. 

Having good flour, there is no excuse for not making 
good bread, for it is a very simple process. Goon yeast 
is all-essential ; and we shall now tell the reader how to 
make it. There are two or three kinds, equally good- — 
as follows : 

HOP YEAST. 

Take two quarts of water, one handful of hops, two 
tea-cups wheat flour ; boil these together about half an i 
hour, and while it is boiling-hot, pour it upon a suflicientt 
quantity of wheat or rye flour to make a stiff* paste orr 
batter ; let it stand until blood-warm, when you must addl 
half a pint of yeast, two large spoonfuls of molasses, orr, 
brown sugar if you have it, and stir the whole well ; set: 
it in a cool place in summer, and a warm one in winter; 
when perfectly light (which is the case when it looks 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 125 

frothy) and cold, it should be put in a clean jar or bottle, 
but not filled or tightly corked, until thoroughly worked, 
which will be by the next day ; then cork it tightly, and 
•t will keep ten or twelve days. It is considered, by some 
housekeepers, a great deal of trouble to prepare yeast so 
often. This can be obviated by using the following, for 

HARD YEAST. 

Take six quarts of water and one quart of hops ; boil 
them together until only two quarts remain ; then strain 
the liquid, and add sufficient flour or rye-meal to make a 
stiff batter, while boiling-hot. When nearly cool, add 
half a pint good yeast, and let it stand a few hours until 
perfectly light. You may then add sifted Indian meal, 
until of a consistency to roll out into cakes. Roll out, 
until about half an inch thick, and cut in strips two inches 
wide ; then cut in cakes three inches long, and lay upon 
boards previously dusted with a little flour, and prick 
them with a fork. They can then be set in a clean dry 
chamber, where they will be exposed to the sun and air 
to dry, or put into the oven two or three times, after the 
bread is drawn out. When perfectly dry, put them into 
a bag, and hang it up in a cool dry place. 

Two cakes will make sufficient yeast for a peck of 
flour. They should be broken into a pint of lukewarm 
water, together with a large spoonful of flour, the night 
before wanted for use, and kept in a place . moderately 



MILK YEAST 

This yeast is made quicker than any other, and is pre- 
ferred by many. Take a pint of new milk, and stir in a 
tea-spoonful of salt and a large spoonful of flour. Set 
this by the fire where it will keep lukewarm, and it will 



126 THE FARMER S AND 

be ready for use in an hour. Twice the quantity oi this 
yeast is required; and it must be used as soon as it is 
-light, which will be the case when it looks frothy, and 
the bread baked immediately. Bread made of this dries 
soon, but is very good.* 

Having got good yeast, the next steps are as follows: 
For a family of four or five persons, where the baking is 
done but once a week, take twenty-one quarts of flour, 
(which will weigh twenty-one pounds ;) put it into a pan 
or trough large enough to hold double the above quantity 
of flour. Make a deep hole in the middle of the flour ; 
pour into it a half pint of the hop yeast described above, 
having previously mixed the yeast in a pint of lukewarm 
water well stirred ; then with a spoon stir into this liquid 
as much of the surrounding flour as will make a thin 
batter. This will leave a large part of the whole mass 
of flour perfectly dry, with a small island of soft batter 
in the centre. This is called '• setting the sponge.^' 
Sprinkle on the top of this " sponge " a little dry flour. 
Then cover the whole over with a warm cloth, either 
flannel or thick cotton, and set it by the fire in winter, or 
where the sun is shining in summer. The leaven con- 
tained in the batter will thus be spread to all the flour. 

Let the whole mass stand till it has swelled and risen, 
so as to form cracks on the outside ; then scatter over it 
two table-spoonfuls of fine salt. 

The next step is to make the mass into dough. This 
is done as follows : Take four quarts of soft water, as 
warm as milk in summer, a little warmer than milk if in 
winter ; add the water by degrees to the flour till it is all 
thoroughly moistened, stirring it with your hands. Now 
knead it wilh your fists till it becomes smooth and stiff*, 
and that not a particle of it will stick to your hands. Do 

* To make Potato Teast, see page 163. For Hungarian Yeast, see indei 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 127 

not leave off kneading while it is in the ieasi aegree 
sticky. On this depends the quality of the bread. 

Then make the whole mass into a lump in the middle 
of the trough or pan, and sprinkle it over with flour. 
Cover it with a warm cloth, and, if it be winter, place it 
near the fire. It will now begin to swell, and in an hour 
or less it will be at its height. 

Now is the time to make into loaves for baking. This 
is done by dividing it into as many loaves as you want, 
say seven if you please ; put these on well-floured tin or 
earthen plates, and put immediately into the oven. Some 
people put the loaves directly upon the oven floor, without 
using plates. If you do so, sweep the oven floor well. 

It is a good rule to put the fire in the oven when the 
dough is made up. The oven will be ready just about in 
time, if the wood is dry and good. To tell whether the 
oven is too hot, sprinkle a little dry flour on the bottom ; 
if the flour burns black at once, wait a few minutes till it 
cools. 

You can tell when it is hot enough by the color of the 
bricks at the sides and top. If these be clear from smoke 
the oven is heated sufficiently.* 

While the loaves are in the oven, it must be shut up 
and kept tight ; occasionally taking a peep in to see that 
all is right. It will usually take an hour and a half, or 
two hours to finish the baking. Your eye will tell you 
about when to take the loaves out of the oven. 

You will get about twenty-eight pounds of bread from 
the twenty-one quarts (or pounds) of flour. The water 
adds this weight to it. 

This recipe may be depended on. If followed, a family 
is certain of having good bread. 

* Cooking-stove ovens often brown the bread, by the plate getting too hot 
spread a layer of ashes ever the bottom of the oven, and it will prevent it. This it 
decidedly better than putting in bricks. 



128 

Of course, a smaller family than five persons will not 
require so large a baking. The same proportions of 
flour, yeast, and water, should be observed in a smaller 
baking. 

BISCUIT. 

A very good kind of family biscuit can be made in the 
same way as the bread, by using a less quantity and only 
adding a little shortening, either of butter or lard — a 
table-spoonful of lard, or two of butter, will be sufficient 
for as much dough as will make a large loaf of bread, 
and that will suffice for a family breakfast or supper.* 

Another buiscut. — One cup shortening, four cups 
milk, warmed together ; half a cup yeast, flour to make 
it stifT. 

Quick btscuit. — One quart sour cream, a large tea- 
spoonful saleratus, a little salt, and flour enough to maKe 
a paste stiff enough to roll. This can be baked in a 
spider on a few embers. 

If you have some milk or buttermilk, you can make 
them very nice by rubbing a small bit of shortening into 
the flour and mixing with the milk, as in the foregoing 
you use the cream. 

BREAD MADE OF WOOD. 

In times of great scarcity, and where famine threatens, 
it is well to know how to prepare a nutritious substance, 
which may go under the name of hread, from the heech 
and other woods destitute of turpentine. 

Take green wood, chop it into very small chips; or 
make it into shavings, which is better. Boil these three 
or four times, stirring them very hard during boiling. 

* This dough may be used to make good common dou<?h-nut«, by adding to it a 
little allspice and iHolasses, or sugar ; and fry, after having been lefl to rise the 
fecoad time 



129 

Dry them, and then reduce them to powder if possible ; 
if not, as fine as you can. Bake this powder in the oven 
three or four times, and then grind it as you would corn. 
Wood thus prepared acquires the smell and taste of corn- 
flour. It will not ferment without the addition of leaven. 
The leaven prepared for corn-flour, is the best to use 
with it. 

It will form a spongy bread, and when much baked 
with a hard crust, is by no means unpalatable. 

This kind of flour boiled in water and left to stand, 
forms a thick, tough, trembling jelly, which is very nu- 
tritious, and in time of great scarcity in frontier countries, 
may be resorted to to preserve life, with perfect confi- 
dence.* 

INDIAN CORN CAKE. 

Indian corn is very much used in the United States, 
and is an excellent bread-stuff. It is called maize in the 
old country. The following recipe will make a good 
substitute for bread, and is very easy to be made. 

Take one quart of sifted Indian meal, two table-spoon- 
fuls of molasses, two tea-spoonfuls of salt, a bit of short- 
ening, (lard or butter,) half as big as a hen's egg ; stir 
these together ; make it pretty moist with scalding water, 
put it into a well greased pan, smooth the surface, and 
bake it brown on both sides before a quick fire. 

A rich kind of Indian cake may be thus made : Take 
one egg to a half-pint of milk, put in two table-spoonfuls 
of molasses, a little ginger or cinnamon ; stir into this 

* The writer of these pages believes thetaro root of the Sandwich Islands, which 
forms the ^rreat stajjle of food for the natives, to be the wild turnip of the American 
woods. The latter is poisonous in an uncooked state, and so is the taro. 

The writer has himself eaten of the cooked taro, (called poe in its prepared state) 
ot the Sandwich Islands, and can testify to its palatabieness and nutritiousness. In 
the next edition of tiiis work, the matter will be properly noticed. 

6-4= 



130 

mixture sufficient Indian meal to make it thick enough to 
pour. Take a bake-kettle or spider, grease it, pour the 
cake in, cover it and bake it half an hour or more, ac- 
cording to circumstances, which can be judged by the 
eye. Sour milk is good to use in mixing this cake, instead 
of water. A tea-spoonful of dissolved pearlash will make 
the milk sweet, and must be used. — Mrs. Child. 



PIES, &c. 

The greatest possible cleanliness and nicety should be 
observed in making pastry. The slab or board, paste- 
rollers, tins, cutters, stamps, everything, in fact, used for 
it, and especially the hands, (for these last are not always 
so scrupulously attended to as they ought to be,) should be 
equally free from the slightest soil, or particle of dust. 
The more expeditiously the finer kinds of crust are made 
and despatched to the oven, and the less they are touched, 
the better. Much of their excellence depends upon the 
baking also ; they should have a sufficient degree of heat 
to raise them quickly, but not so fierce a one as to color 
them too much before they are done, and still less to bum 
them. The oven-door should remain closed after they 
are' put in, and not removed until the paste is set. Large 
raised pies require a- steadily sustained, or, what is tech- 
nically called, a soaking heat ; and to ensure this, the 
oven should be made very hot, then cleared, and closely 
shut from half to a whole hour before it is used, to con- 
centrate the heat. It is an advantage in this case to have 
a large log or two of cord-wood burned in it, in addition 
to the usual firing. 

In mixing paste, the water should be added gradually, 
and the whole gently drawn together with the fingers. 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 131 

until sufficient has been added, when it should be lightly- 
kneaded until it is as smooth as possible. When care- 
lessly made, the surface is often left covered with small 
dry crumbs or lumps ; or the water is poured in heedless- 
ly in so large a proportion that it becomes necessary to 
add more flour to render it workable in any way ; and this 
ought particularly to be avoided, when a certain weight 
of all the ingredients has been taken. 

VERY GOOD LIGHT PASTE. 

Mix with a pound of sifted flour six ounces of fresh, 
pure lard, and make them into a smooth paste with cold 
water; press the buttermilk from ten ounces of butter, 
and form it into a ball, by twisting a clean cloth round it. 
Roll out the paste, put the ball of butter in the middle, 
close it like an apple-dumpling, and roll it very lightly, 
till it is less than an inch thick ; fold the ends into the 
middle, dust a little flour over the board and paste-roller, 
and roll the paste thin a second time ; then set it aside for 
three or four minutes in a very cool place, give it two 
more turns, as they are technically called, and after it has 
again been left a few minutes, roll it out twice more, fold- 
mg it each time in three. This ought to render it fit for 
use. The sooner this paste is sent to the oven after it is 
•anade, the lighter it will be : if allowed to remain long be- 
fore it is baked, it will be tough and heavy. 

Flour, 1 lb. ; lard, 6 ozs. ; butter, 10 ozs. ; little salt. 

ENGLISH PUFF-PASTE. 

Break lightly into a couple of pounds of dried and sift- 
ed flour, eight ounces of butter ; add a pinch of salt, and 
sufficient cold water to make the paste ; work it as quickly 
and as lightly as possible, until it is smooth and pliable • 



132 THE FARMER S AND 

then level it with the paste-roUer till it is three-quarters 
of an inch thick, and place regularly upon it six ounces 
of butter in small bits ; fold the paste like a blanket-pud- 
ding, roll it out again, lay on it six ounces more of butter, 
repeat the rolling, dusting each time a little flour over the 
board and paste ; add again six ounces of butter, and roll 
the paste out thin three or four times, folding the ends into 
the middle. 

Flour, 2 lbs. ; little salt ; butter, 1 lb. 10 ozs. 

If very rich paste be required, equal portions of flour 
and butter must be used ; and the latter may be divided 
into two, instead of three parts, when it is to be rolled in. 

CREAM PASTE. 

[Very good.) 

Stir a little fine salt into a pound of dry flour, and mix 
gradually with it sufficient very thick sweet cream, to 
form a smooth paste ; it will be found sufficiently good for 
common family dinners, without the addition of butter ; 
but to make an excellent crust, roll in four ounces in the 
usual way, after having given the paste a couple of turns. 
Handle it as lightly as possible in making it, and send it 
to the oven as soon as it is ready ; it may be used for fruit 
tarts, canneJons, puffs, and other varieties of small pastry, 
or for good meat-pies. Six ounces of butter to the pound 
of flour will give a very rich crust. 

Flour, 1 lb. ; salt, 1 small saltspoonful, (more for meat- 
pies;) rich cream, ^ to :| pint; butter, 4 ozs.; for richest 
crust, 6 ozs. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 133 



FLEAD CRUST. 

Flead is the provincial name for the leaf, or inside fat 
of a pig, which makes excellent crust when fresh, much 
finer, indeed, than after it is melted into lard. Clear it 
quite from skin, and slice it very thin into the flour ; add 
sufficient salt to give flavor to the paste, and make the 
whole up smooth and firm with cold water ; lay it on a 
clean dresser, and beat it forcibly with a rolling-pin, until 
the flead is blended perfectly with the flour. It may then 
be made into cakes with a paste-cutter, or used for pies, 
round the edges of which a knife should be passed, as the 
crust rises better when cut than if merely rolled to the 
proper size. With the addition of a small quantity of but- 
ter,* which should be rolled in after the paste is made, it 
will be found equal to fine pulT-crust, with the advantage 
of being more easy of digestion. 

COMMON SUET-CRUST FOR PIES. 

In many families this is preferred both for pies and 
tarts, to crust made with butter, as being much more 
wholesome ; but it should never be served, unless espe- 
cially ordered, as it is to some persons peculiarly distaste- 
ful. Chop the suet extremely fine, and add from six to 
eight ounces of it to a pound of flour, with a few grains 
of salt ; mix these with cold water into a firm paste, and 
work it very smooth. Some cooks beat it with a paste- 
roller, until the suet is perfectly blended with the flour ; 
but the crust is lighter without this. In exceedingly sul- 
try weather, the suet, not being firm enough to chop, may 

* Six ounces of flead, with two of butter, to the pound of flour, will make good 
common crust ; half as much again, with the same weight of flour, excellent crust ; a 
teaspoonful of salt will be required with either. 



134 THE farmer's and 

be sliced as thin as possible, and well beaten into the 
paste after it is wetted. 

Flour, 2 lbs. ; beef or veal kidney-suet, 12 to 16 ozs. ; 
salt, (for fruit-pies,) \ teaspoonful, for meat-pies, 1 tea- 
spoonful. 

VERY SUPERIOR SUET-CRUST. 

Strip the skin entirely from some fresh veal or beef 
kidney-suet, chop, and then put it into the mortar, with a 
small quantity of pure-flavored lard, oil, or butter, and 
pound it perfectly smooth ; it may then be used for crust 
in the same way that butter is in making pufF-paste, and 
in this form will be found a most excellent substitute for 
it, for hot pies or tarts. It is not quite so good for those 
which are to be served cold. Eight ounces of suet pound- 
ed with two of butter, and worked with the fingers into a 
pound of flour, will make an exceedingly good short crust, 
but for a very rich one, the proportion must be increased. 

Good short crust : flour, 1 lb. ; suet, 8 ozs. ; butter, 
2 ozs. ; salt, ^ teaspoonful. Richer crust : suet, 16 ozs. ; 
butter, 4 ozs. ; flour, 1^ lb. ; salt, 1 small teaspoonful. 

A COMMON CHICKEN PIE. 

Prepare the fowls as for boiling, cut them down into 
joints, season them with salt, white pepper, and nutmeg or 
pounded mace ; arrange them neatly in a dish bordered 
with paste, lay amongst them three or four fresh eggs, 
boiled hard, and cut in halves, pour in some cold water, 
put on a thick cover, pare the edge, and ornament it, make 
a hole in the centre, lay a roll of paste or a few leaves 
round it, and bake the pie in a moderate oven from an 
Iiour to an hour and a half. The back and neck bones 



THE EBIIGRANT S HAND-EOOK. 135 

may be boiled down with a bit or two of lean ham, to 
make a little additional gravy, which can be poured into 
the pie after it is baked. 

PUDDING-PIES. 

This form of pastry (or its name, at least) is, we be- 
lieve, peculiar to the county of Kent, where it is made in 
abundance, and eaten by all classes of people during 
Lent. Boil for fifteen minutes, three ounces of ground 
rice in a pint and a half of new milk, and when taken 
from the fire, stir into it three ounces of butter, and four 
of sugar; add to these six well-beaten eggs, a grain or 
two of salt, and a flavoring of nutmeg or lemon-peel at 
pleasure. When the mixture is nearly cold, line some 
large patty-pans or some saucers with thin puff-paste, fill 
them with it three parts full, strew "the tops thickly with 
currants which have been cleaned and dried ; and bake 
the pudding-pies from fifteen to twenty minutes, in a mod- 
erate oven. 

Milk, li pint ; ground rice, 3 ozs. : 15 minutes. But- 
ter, 3 ozs. ; sugar, i lb. ; nutmeg or lemon-rind ; eggs, 6 ; 
currants, 4 to 6 ozs. : 15 to 20 minutes. 

PUDDING-PIES. 
(A commoner kind.) 

One quart of new milk, five ounces of ground rice, 
butter, one ounce and a half, (or more,) four ounces of 
sugar, half a small nutmeg, grated, a pinch of salt, four 
large eggs, and three ounces of currants. 

FRUIT PIES. 

Fruit pies are generally made with plain paste, and re- 
quire but little seasoning. All small fruits, such as rasD- 



136 

berries, currants, cherries, and gooseberries, require the 
addition of sugar and water only. Apple pies, when 
made of ripe fruit, are best made by putting the lower 
crust into the plate, and then slicing the apples upon it. 
Then cover the apples with the upper crust, and bake. 
As soon as the pies are taken from the oven, entirely re- 
move the upper crust, and sweeten the pie with sugar, and 
flavor it with grated nutmeg, or whatever else you prefer. 
A piece of butter added (of the size of a nutmeg to each 
pie) is a great improvement. 

Dried fruit and cranberries should be stewed with a lit- 
tie water, and allowed to get cool before being made into 
pies. 

Peaches and plums should be stoned and cut in halves : 
they require the addition of a little water, as do most 
kinds of fruit. 

MINCE-MEAT, FOR MINCE PIES. 

To one pound of an unsalted ox-tongue, boiled tender 
and cut free from the rind, add two pounds of fine stoned 
raisins, two of beef kidney-suet, two pounds and a half 
of currants well cleaned and dried, two of good apples, 
two and a half of fine Lisbon sugar, from half to a whole 
pound of candied peel, according to the taste, the grated 
rinds of two large lemons, and two more boiled quite ten- 
der, and chopped up entirely, with the exception of the 
pips, two small nutmegs, half an ounce of salt, a large 
teaspoonful of pounded mace, rather more of ginger in 
powder, half a pint of brandy, and as much good sherry 
or madeira. Mince these ingredients separately, and mix 
the others all well before the brandy and the wine are 
added ; press the whole into a jar, or jars, and keep it 
closely covered. It should be stored for a few days be- 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. l^Y 

fore it is used, and will remain good, for many weeks. 
Some persons like a slight flavoring of cloves, in addition 
to the other spices ; others add the juice of two or three 
lemons, and a larger quantity of brandy. The inside of 
a tender and well-roasted sirloin of beef will answer quite 
as well as the tongue. 

Of a fresh-boiled ox-tongue, or inside of roasted sirloin, 
1 lb. ; stoned raisins and minced apples, each 2 lbs. ; cur- 
rants and fine sugar, each 2i lbs. ; candied orange, lemon, 
or citron-rind, 8 to 16 ozs. ; boiled lemons, 2 large ; rinds 
of two others, grated ; salt, ^ oz. ; nutmegs, 2 small ; 
pounded mace, 1 large teaspoonful, and rather more of 
ginger ; good sherry or madeira, ± pint ; brandy, i pint. 

Ohs. — The lemons will be sufficiently boiled in from 
one hour to one and a quarter. 

MINCE PIES. 

A very good mince pie may be made from the hock of 
beef, or the neck-piece, or both boiled together till tender. 
After being thoroughly boiled, separate the meat from the 
bones and gristle, and chop it fine. Add to every pound 
of beef half a pound of suet chopped fine, and a pound 
of tart apples chopped fine. Wet the above pretty moist 
with sweet cider, (or vinegar and water, if you cannot get 
cider,) and make the whole as sweet as you may wish, 
with sugar and molasses, or either. Now add a little 
salt, pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cloves, allspice, and mace, 
(or as many of these as you please,) according to your 
taste, and a few stoned raisins and currants. Make your 
pies on shallow plates, with a thick upper crust, in which 
a small hole should be cut, and bake. 

If you wish to prepare meat for pies, to keep some 
time, boil and chop your meat as before mentioned, 



X38 THE FARMER S AND 

adding the suet, cider, sweetening, and spices, leaving out 
the apples ; pack this in a jar, and pour over it a tea-cup 
full of brandy. Cover the jar with white paper, tie it up 
tight, and put it away in a cool place. When wanted for 
use, add the apples. 

PUMPKIN PIES. 

Take a fine ripe pumpkin, rinse it, take out the inside, 
and cut the solid part into small pieces. Put these into a 
covered pot, with just water enough to prevent their burn- 
ing. When stewed soft, stir thoroughly with a wooden 
stick. Let it remain on the fire until the water is all 
evaporated ; stirring it occasionally, to prevent its burning 
or adhering to the pot. When the stewed pumpkin is suf- 
ficiently dry, take it out of the pot, and when it is cool 
enough, pass it through a sieve. 

Now take milk, according to the number of pies you 
may wish to make out of the stewed pumpkin. No rule 
can be given as to the quantity of milk, as it must depend 
on the taste of the cook, and the richness of the pies 
wanted. If you wish them plain^ add to the pumpkin milk 
enough to make it of the consistency of thick batter, and 
sweeten with molasses and sugar, or with either alone. 
The sweetening must necessarily be a matter of judgment, 
to- be governed by tasting the mixture. Now add a table- 
spoonful of ginger, and one of powdered cinnamon. Two 
or three eggs would make them richer. 

Now roll out your paste, and line a soup-plate with it, , 
turning the edges neatly. Then cut a thin strip of paste, \ 
and lay it around the edge of the plate, and fill up with 
the prepared pumpkin. ■ 

These pies require a hot oven, and should be baked \ 
•oon as filled. 



139 



GENERAL REMARKS ON CAKES. 

The ingredients for cakes, as well as for puddings, 
should all be fresh and good, as well as free from damp ; 
the lightness of many kinds depends entirely on that given 
to the eggs by whisking, and by the manner in which the 
whole is mixed. A small portion of carbonate of soda, 
which will not be in the slightest degree perceptible to the 
taste after the cake is baked, if thrown in just before the 
mixture is put into the oven, will ensure its rising well. 

To guard against the bitterness so often imparted by 
yeast, when it is used for cakes or biscuits, it should be 
sparingly added, and the sponge should be left twice the 
usual time to rise. This method will be found to answer 
equally with bread. For example : should a couple of 
spoonfuls of yeast be ordered in a receipt, when it is bit- 
ter, use but one, and let it stand two hours, instead of half 
the time ; the fermentation, though slow, will be quite as 
perfect as if it were more quickly effected, and the cake 
or loaf thus made, will not become dry by any means so 
soon as if a larger portion of yeast were mixed with it. 

All light cakes require a rather brisk oven to raise and 
set them ; very large rich ones a well-sustained degree of 
heat, sufficient to bake them through ; and small sugar- 
cakes a very slow oven, to prevent their taking a deep 
color before they are half done : gingerbread, too, should 
be gently baked, unless it be of the light thick kind. 

To ascertain whether a cake be done, thrust a knife into 
the centre, and should this come out clean, draw it from 
the oven directly ; but should the paste adhere to it, con- 
tinue the baking. Several sheets of paper are placed 
usually under large plum-cakes. 



I 



140 



BUCKWHEAT CAKES. 
Take a quart of lukewarm water ; add a tea-spoonful 
of salt ; make a moderately thick batter of buckwheat 
flour, and two handfuls of Indian corn meal. Then add 
a tea-cupful of home-made yeast, or a table-spoonful of 
brewer's yeast, and set it over night in a warm place to 
rise. In the morning add a tea-spoonful of saleratus, if 
the above mixture be sour, dissolved in a little hot water. 
Fry them in fat enough to prevent their sticking to the 
griddle. 

ICING FOR PASTRY. 

The best mode of icing pastry before it is sent to the 
oven is, to moisten the paste with cold water, to sift sugar 
thickly upon it, and to press it lightly on with the hand ; 
but when a whiter icing is preferred, the pastry must be 
drawn from the oven when nearly baked, and brushed 
with white of egg, whisked to a froth ; then well covered 
with the sifted sugar, and sprinkled with a few drops of 
water before it is put in again : this glazing answers also 
very well, though it takes a slight color, if used before 
the pastry is baked. 

IMPROVED CORN BREAD. 

Take corn-meal, a sufficient quantity to make a stiff 
batter, with three pints of sour milk ; three eggs, well 
beaten ; two ounces shortening ; one gill best molasses ; 
a little salt and saleratus ; grease pan well, and bake 
quick. 

VERY GOOD SMALL RICH CAKES. 
Beat and mix well together four eggs properly whisked, 
and half a pound of fine sifted sugar ; pour to them by 



141 

degrees a quarter-pound of clarified butter, as little 
warmed as possible ; stir lightly in with these four ounces 
of dry sifted flour, beat the mixture for about ten minutes, 
put it into small buttered patty-pans, and bake the cakes a 
quarter of an hour in a moderate oven. They should be 
flavored with the rasped or grated rind of a small lemon, 
or with pounded mace or cinnamon. 

Eggs, 4 ; sugar, -i lb. ; butter, 4 ozs. ; flour, 4 ozs. ; 
lemon-rind, mace, or cinnamon : baked 15 minutes. 



GINGERBREAD. 

For a simple kind of gingerbread, the following ingre- 
dients only are needed : one quart of molasses ; a tea-cup- 
ful of butter, and one of cream ; two tea-spoonfuls of 
pearlash, (or saleratus;) a table-spoonful or two of gin- 
ger ; and flour. 

Take as much flour as you think the molasses and 
cream will wet ; rub the butter thoroughly into the flour ; 
crush the saleratus very fine, and put it into the cream. 
Now add the cream and molasses, and ginger, to the flour, 
and knead it into a dough of a proper consistency to roll 
out into sheets or cakes, as may be desired. 

Soft Gingerhread is made by mixing three tea-cupfuls 
of molasses, one of melted butter, one table-spoonful of 
ginger, four well-beaten eggs. After mixing the above 
together, add a few handfuls of flour, and then a tea-cup- 
ful of cream, with a tea-spoonful of saleratus dissolved in 
it. Then stir in suflicient flour to make it of a thickness 
to just enable you to stir it with a spoon. 

If milk is used in either of the above cakes, instead of 
cream, add more butter. Beef drippings are very nice 
for a part of the shortening. 



142 



CUP CAKE 



To three cups of light bread dough, add two cups 
crushed brown sugar, one cup of butter, half a cup of 
cream or milk, a tea-spoonful of saleratus, a tea-spoonful 
of cinnamon, and a grated nutmeg. Beat these well to- 
gether for fifteen or twenty minutes. Three or four eggs 
improve this cake, but it is very good without them. 

After the above are well mixed, put the same into your 
cake-pans, and let it remain half an hour before setting in 
the oven. 

BUTTER BISCUITS. 

Take four pounds of flour, and cut into it one pound of 
butter, and a little salt. Then wet with sufficient watei 
or milk to form a stiff* dough ; and knead it very hard. 
After it is well and thoroughly kneaded, beat the dough 
hard on both sides with a rolling-pin for some. time. TheK 
roll the dough, and cut it into small round cakes. These 
cakes should be pounded again on both sides, pricked, an(2 
baked in a moderate oven. 

CRULLERS. 

Mix one cup of butter and one of sugar ; beat and adci 
four eggs, and spice to your taste. Add a little flour, thee 
a tea-cupful of cream, with a tea-spoonful of saleratus, 
and flour enough to roll out. Spread some flour on your 
paste-board, and roll the dough out to the thickness of 
about half an inch. Cut the dough into slips, and twist 
in any form you please ; or shape the crullers with a jag- 
ging iron. Have ready an iron pot or a deep pan, with 
melted lard in it, and lay the crullers lightly in. The 
lard should be hot enough to boil up when the cakes are 



THE emigrant's HAiND-BOOK. 143 

>aid in, and the crullers should be constantly waioned, and 
turned when brown. 

These cakes are plain, but good. A richer kind may 
be made by using one and a half pounds of sugar, three 
quarters of a pound of butter, thirteen eggs, a grated nut- 
meg, and as much flour as the eggs will take. 

RICH DOUGH-NUTS. 

Three pounds of sifted flour ; a pound of powdered 
sugar ; three quarters of a pound of butter ; four eggs ; 
half a large tea-cupful of yeast; a pint and a half of 
milk ; a tea-spoonful of powdered cinnamon ; a grated nut- 
meg ; a table-spoonful of rose-water, if desired. 

Cut up the butter in flour. Add the sugar, spice, and 
rose-water. Beat the eggs very light, and pour them into 
the mixture. Add the yeast, (half a tea-cup, or two wine- 
glasses full,) and then stir in the milk by degrees, so as to 
make it a soft dough. Cover it, and set it to rise. 

When quite light, cut it in diamonds with a jagging- 
iron, or a sharp knife, and fry them in lard. Grate loaf- 
sugar over them when done.* 

MUFFINS. 

Take a quart of new milk, put into it a large spoonful 
of butter, and set them by the fire till the butter is melt- 
ed ; then add a tea-spoonful of salt. Beat three eggs, and 
stir them into the above, with a large spoonful of brewer's 
yeast, or four of home-made yeast. Then stir in sufficient 
flour to make it of the consistency of the soft gingerbread 
described on another page. 

Set the batter to -rise in a warm place, and it will be 

* On page 127, a recipe for good common dough-nuts may be found. 



144 THE farmer's and 

ready to bake in four or five hours. When light, grease 
your baking-iron and muffin-rings. Fill your rings half 
full of the batter, and bake until the muffins are light 
brown. Pull them open with your fingers, and butter 
them while hot. 

ROLLS. 

To seven pounds of flour add two tea-spoonfuls of salt. 
Make a hole in the mass of flour, and stir in two table- 
spoonfuls of good brewer's yeast, or a tea-cupful of home- 
made, mixed with a little lukewarm water. Then add a 
quart of milk, and stir the whole with a spoon in the cen- 
tre of the four, till a thin batter is formed in the centre. 
Sprinkle a little flour over the batter, and set it to rise. 
When light, knead it well, and form into rolls, and allow 
them fifteen or twenty minutes to rise before baking. 

SPONGE CAKE. 

Break the whites of ten eggs into a large shallow dish ; 
beat them as light as possible. Beat the yolks with one 
pound of finely powdered white sugar, the grated rind of 
two lemons, and the juice of one. When the whites have 
been thoroughly beaten, add them to th6 yolks and sugar ; 
and then add gradually half a pound of sifted flour ; beat 
them all well together, and bake in a quick oven. 

Now butter some sheets or strips of white paper, and 
line your baking-tins before putting in your cake ; and if, 
while baking, it browns too soon, lay paper over the top 
of the cake. 

If you bake the whole in one cake, it will require an 
hour's baking ; but if in smaller ones, ten or fifteen min- 
utes are sufficient. 



t • THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 145 

BATTER CAKE. 

Take one pint of cream, one pint of sour milk or butter- 
milk, four eggs, a tea-spoonful of salt, saleratus sufficient 
to destroy the acidity of the milk, and three pints of sifted 
flour, or sufficient to make a stiff batter. Stir the articles 
well together, and bake in a deep dish. To be eaten hot 
with butter. 

A^ERY SUPERIOR WHIPPED SYLLABUBS. 

Weigh seven ounces of fine sugar, and rasp on it the 
rinds of two fresh sound lemons of good size, then pound 
or roll it to powder, and put it into a bowl with the strained 
juice of the lemons, two large glasses of sherry, and two 
of brandy ; when the sugar is nearly or quite dissolved, 
add a pint of rich cream, and whisk or mill the mixture 
well ; take off the froth as it rises, and put it into glasses. 
These syllabubs will remain good for several days, and 
should always be made, if possible, four and twenty hours 
before they are wanted for table. The full flavor of the 
lemon-rind is obtained with less trouble than in rasping, 
by paring it very thin indeed, and infusing it for some 
hours in the juice of the fruit. 

Sugar, 7 ozs. ; rind and juice of lemons, 2 ; sherry, 2 
large wine-glasses full ; brandy, 2 wine-glasses full ; 
cream, 1 pint. 

Ohs. — These proportions are sufficient for two dozen or 
more of syllabubs : they are often made with almost equal 
quantities of wine and cream, but are certainly neither so 
good nor so wholesome without a portion of brandy. 

GOOD COMMON BLANC MANGE. 
Infuse for an hour, in a pint and three quarters of new 
milk, the very thin rind of one small, or of half a large 

7 



146 THE farmer's and 

lemon, and eight bitter almonds, blanched and bruised ; 
then add two ounces of sugar, or rather more for persons 
who like the blanc mange very sweet, and an ounce and 
a half of isinglass. Boil them gently over a clear fire, 
stirring them often until this last is dissolved ; take off the 
scum, stir in half a pint of rich cream, and strain the 
blanc mange into a bowl : it should be moved gently with 
a spoon till nearly cold, to prevent the cream settling on 
the surface. Before it is moulded, mix with it by degrees 
a wine-glass full of brandy. 

New milk, 1| pint ; rind of lemon, i large, or whole 
small one ; bitter almonds, 8 : infuse 1 hour. Sugar, 2 
to 3 ozs. ; isinglass, li oz. : 10 minutes. Cream, ^ pint; 
brandy, 1 wine-glass full. 

RICHER BLANC MANGE. 

A pint of good cream, with a pint of new milk, sweet- 
ened and flavored -as above, or with a little additional 
sugar, and the rind of one very fresh lemon, with the 
same proportion of isinglass, will make very good blanc 
mange. An ounce of Jordan almonds may be pounded 
and mixed with it, but they are not needed with the 
cream. 

CUSTARD. 

Boil in a quart of milk a few peach-leaves or a stick of 
cinnamon. Beat with four, or if you prefer, six eggs, two 
or three large spoonfuls of brown sugar. Add the milk, 
and bake fifteen or twenty minutes. 

FINE ALMOND CAKE. 

Blanch, dry, and pound to the finest possible paste eight 
ounces of fresh Jordan almonds, and one ounce of bitter ; 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 14^» 

moisten them with a few drops of cold water or white of 
egg, to prevent their oiling ; then mix with them very grad 
ually twelve fresh eggs which have been whisked unti; 
they are exceedingly light ; throw in by degrees one pound 
of fine, dry, sifted sugar, and keep the mixture -light by 
constant beating, with a large w^ooden spoon, as the sepa- 
rate ingredients are added. Mix in by degrees three- 
quarters of a pound of dried and sifted flour of the best 
quality; then pour gently from the sediment a pound of 
butter which has been just melted, but not allowed to be- 
come hot, and beat it very gradually but very thoroughly 
into the cake, letting one portion entirely disappear before 
another is thrown in ; add the rasped or finely-grated rinds 
of two sound fresh lemons, fill a thickly buttered mould 
rather more than half full with the mixture, and bake the 
cake from an hour and a half to two hours in a well-heat- 
ed oven. Lay paper over the top when it is sufiiciently 
colored, and guard carefully against its being burned. 

Almonds, i lb. ; bitter almonds, 1 oz. ; eggs, 12 ; su- 
gar, 1 lb. ; flour, f lb. ; butter, 1 lb. ; rinds, lemons, 2 : 
li to 2 hours. 

Ohs. — Three-quarters of a pound of almonds may be 
mixed with this cake when so large a portion of them is 
liked, but an additional ounce or two of sugar, and one egg 
or more, will then be required. 

POUND CAKE. 

Mix, as directed in the foregoing receipt, ten eggs, (some 
cooks take a pound in weight of these,) one pound of su- 
gar, one of flour, and the same of butter. A glass of bran- 
dy and a pound of currants may be added very gradually 
just before the cake is put into the oven, with any spice 
that is liked, and two or three ounces of candied orange or 
lemon rind, sliced thin, or an ounce of caraway seeds 



148 THE farmer's and 

may supply the place of all. A cake made with half the ' 
quantity of the ingredients must be baked one hour 

A RICH WEDDING CAKE. 

One pound of flour, one pound of butter, one pound of 
sugar, ten eggs, one gill of brandy, two pounds currants, 
two and a half pounds of raisins, half a pound citron, half 
ounce mace, half ounce cinnamon, two nutmegs, one spoon- 
ful ginger, and half a wine-glass of rose-water. 

The currants should be washed and cleaned the day 
previous ; dry them by rubbing in a coarse napkin, and 
then spread them upon a large dish to dry. Stone the rai- 
sins and cut them in halves ; sprinkle the currants and 
raisins well with flour ; mix the brandy and rose-water in 
a cup, adding thereto the spice pounded fine ; sift your 
flour ; if you use brown sugar, dry and roll it ; if white 
sugar, crush it and pass it through a coarse sieve. Now 
stir the butter and sugar together to a light, creamy state ; 
beat your eggs very light, and stir them into the butter and 
sugar ; to this mixture add gradually a part of the flour, 
and then stir in the spices and the' liquor as above ; now 
add the remainder of the flour, and the currants and rai- 
sins alternately ; stir the whole a few minutes ; now but- 
ter a large tin pan, and cover the bottom and sides of it 
with sheets of white paper well buttered ; then put into the 
pan some of the cake as above mixed, and spread upon it 
a few shreds or strips of the citron ; then another portion 
of the cake, and upon it some citron ; and so on till the 
whole is in the pan. 

It will require four or five hours' baking. 

APPLE SAUCE 
{Good.) 
Put a table-spoonful of M'ater into a quart basin, and fill 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 149 

it with good boiling apples, pared, quartered, and carpfully 
cored ; put a plate over, and set them into a moderate oven 
for about an hour, or until they are reduced quite to a 
pulp ; beat them smooth with a clean wooden spoon, add- 
ing to them a little sugar, and a morsel of fresh butter, 
when these are liked, though they will scarcely be re- 
quired. 

The sauce made thus is far superior to that which is 
boiled. When no other oven is at hand, a Dutch or an 
American one would probably answer for it ; but we 
cannot assert this on our own experience. 

Good boiling apples, 1 quart : baked one hour (more or 
less, according to the quality of the fruit, and temperature 
of the oven) ; sugar, 1 oz. ; butter, ^ oz. 

COMMON PUDDING SAUCE. 
Sweeten a quarter-pint of good melted butter with an 
ounce and a half of sugar, and add to it gradually a cou- 
ple of glasses of wine ; stir it until it is on the point of 
boiling. Lemon-grate, or nutmeg, can be added at plea- 
sure. 

PORK AND BEANS. 

Take one quart of dried beans, and after picking them 
over, put into a vessel and cover them over with soft wa- 
ter. This should be done the night before they are wanted 
for use. Set them in the corner of the fire-place, or where 
they will be warm, and let them remain over night. In 
the morning change the water, and let them heat gradu- 
ally, but not boil, until they are perfectly swollen. Then 
take one pound of pork, (that which has some lean is gen- 
erally preferred,) gash the rindf and after skimming out 
the beans from the water, put with the beans and boil un- 
til soft, in water sufficient to cover them. Then take out 



150 THE FABMEr's and 

the beans and put into a pan, laying the pork in the centre 
with the rind above the surface. Bake from one to three 
hou]rs. 

OBSERVATIONS ON PICKLES. 

The first requisite in making pickles is to have unadul- 
terated vinegar, for all the expense and trouble bestowed 
upon them is often entirely lost in consequence of ingre- 
dients being mixed with this, which soften and sometimes 
even partially decompose the substances immersed in it. 
That which is home-made is generally found for all pur- 
poses to answer best, and it may be prepared of almost any 
degree of strength by increasing the ordinary proportion 
of fruit and sugar, or whatever else may be used for it. 
The refuse of cider, wine, &c., &c., may be converted 
into excellent vinegar : but unless the pickles be quite cov- 
ered with their liquor, and well protected from the air and 
from the influence of damp, which is more than any thing 
destructive of them, the purity of the vinegar will not pre- 
serve them eatable. We can confidently recommend to 
the reader the rather limited number of receipts which 
follow, and which might easily be multiplied did the size 
of our volume permit. Pickling is so easy a process, how- 
ever, that when in any degree properly acquired, it may 
be extended to almost every kind of fruit and vegetable 
successfully. A few of the choicer kinds will neverthe- 
less be found generally more acceptable than a greater va- 
riety of inferior preparations. Mushrooms, gherkins, wal- 
nuts, lemons, and peaches, for all of which we have given 
minute directions, will furnish as much choice as is com- 
monly required. 

PICKLED ONIONS. 
Take the smallest onions that can be procured, just after 



151 

they are harvested, for they are never in so good a state 
for the purpose as then ; proceed, after having peeled 
them, exactly as for the eschalots, and when they begin to 
look clear, which will be in three or four minutes, put them 
into jars, and pour the pickle on them. The vinegar 
should be very pale, and their color will then be exceed- 
ingly well preserved. Any favorite spices can be added 
to it. 

TO PICKLE PEPPERS. 
Take small green peppers, and if you wish them mild, 
take out the seeds. Soak the peppers in salt and water a 
few days, changing the water every other day. Drain 
them, and put into jars, or bottles, and pour over them 
sharp, good vinegar. Add mustard-seed, and a few small 
green tomatoes, if you like. 

TO PICKLE CABBAGE. 
Pull off the loose leaves, and cut the cabbage into shreds 
with a sharp knife ; then sprinkle a little salt in the bot- 
tom of a keg or jar ; then put in a layer of cabbage, and 
sprinkle salt, peppercorns, a little mace, cinnamon, and 
allspice ; then add another layer, and add spices and salt, 
as before. Continue these alternate layers, etc., until 
your jar is full. Heat your vinegar scalding hot, put in 
a little alum, and turn it while hot on the cabbage. Turn 
the vinegar from the cabbage six or seven times, heat it 
scalding hot, and turn it back while hot, to make them 
tender. 

TO PICKLE CUCUMBERS. 
Gather those that are small and green, and let them re- 
main in the shade until the next day ; then rinse and dry 
gently with a cloth, so as to remove the black specks > 
Have ready some cold vinegar, with alum and salt in 



152 

proportion of a large spoonful of alum, and a tea-cup of 
salt to a gallon of vinegar. Throw in your cucumbers, 
which will require to be picked every other day. When 
you have done collecting them, turn the vinegar from 
the cucumbers, scald and skim it till clear ; then put in 
the pickles, let them scald, without boiling, for half an 
hour, then turn them while hot into the vessel you wish 
to keep them in. If you wish them spiced, you can pul- 
verize pepper, cloves, allspice and mace, tie them in a 
cloth, and throw into the vinegar after it is skimmed, and 
let them scald with the cucumbers. Should your vine- 
gar become weak, throw it away, and put fresh to the 
cucumbers with the spices. Whenever any scum rises 
the vinegar needs scalding. String-beans and radish 
pods, make a very nice pickle. Keep them in salt and 
water, while collecting them, changing the water as 
often as once in four or five days. Scald them in hot 
salt and water ; let them lie until cool, and then *pour on 
hot vinegar and spice. 

TO MAKE SOFT SOAP. 

Save all your ashes in a dry place. Take a good 
strong barrel, bore a large hole in the bottom, and place 
it on some blocks of wood, to raise it from the ground 
sufficiently high to set a pail or a kettle under it. Then 
place on the bottom of the barrel inside, three or four 
bricks or pieces of wood, and a wisp or two of clean 
straw on the top of them. Then fill the barrel with ashes. 
Then add sufficient cold water to wet the ashes thorough- 
ly. Let it soak thus for three days. After this, add a 
gallon of water every hour or two, for two days, and let 
it drop from the hole in the barrel, into a tub beneath. 
Keep it dripping until the lye loses its color. Sometimes, 
it is necessary to add fresh ashes to the barrel. You 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 153 

can tell whether it is necessary to do so, by the color of 
the drippings. If the lye is a good amber-color it is all 
right ; if it is pale, it needs more ashes. Good lye 
should be strong enough to bear up a potatoe or an egg. 

Yoii must try this as you ])roceed. 

To make a barrel of soap, you must have the lye 
from five or six bushels of ashes, and four quarts of un- 
slacked lime ; eight quarts if it be slacked. 

The next step is to put the lime into two pails of boil- 
ing water, throw it into the barrel of ashes and let it 
drain through. 

Then take three pounds of grease to each pailful of 
lye — put all these into a large kettle to boil. Let them 
boil together until they become thick and ropy, which 
makes the soap. A small bit of lime thrown in while 
the boiling is going on, is of use. 

The ab^ve soap can be made without the trouble of 
boiling, although it takes a longer time. The mode is 
this: 

Prepare the lye as in the above plan. Fry out the 
grease, and strain it from the scraps. Take two pounds 
of this tried grease to each pailful of lye, and mix it with 
the lye, the latter being heated. 

Then let it stand in the sun, and stir it thoroughly 
every day, and soap will come in a few days. If it do 
not look like soap in five or six days, add a little hot lye 
to it; if it does not " come," then add a little grease. 

TO MAKE CHEAP CANDLES. 

Save all the beef and mutton tallow you can. Try 
it out from time to time as you can 2:et it, and make it 
into little cakes for preservation. When you wish to 
make your candles, melt your tallow and put it into some 
vessel with a wide mouth ; a large-sized iron pot is a 

7* 



154 THE farmer's and 

good one. The wicks should have been previously pre- 
pared, in a way familiar to almost every housekeeper. 
Should any emigrant not understand it, any neighbor 
will show him how it is done. Candle-wicking can 
be procured at any of the country stores. It is necessa- 
ry to keep the liquid hot while the dipping is going on. As 
the tallow decreases in the pot by dipping, hot water 
should be added to keep the tallow at the surface. The 
candles should not be cooled too quickly, lest they should 
crack. 

A better description of candles may be thus made. 
Melt together ten ounces of mutton tallow, a quarter ol 
an ounce of camphor, four ounces of beeswax, and two 
ounces of alum ; and then run it into moulds as usual, 
or dip the candles. These candles furnish a beautiful 
light. 

TO MAKE HARD WATER SOFT. 

While the water is heating, take two quarts of wheat 
bran, put this in a bag and place it in the water, and the 
water, when hot enough for use, will be soft. This is 
enough for a common washing. 

Another method is to uae.soda. A few ounces of this 
will soften a hogshead of water. It will give a delicate 
whiteness to the linen, without the slightest injury, and 
will not affect the hands. It costs but little, and is a great 
relief to those who cannot procure rain or other soft water. 

TO MAKE VINEGAR. 

Take a clean oaken-barrel, or wine-cask, place it in a 
warm room ; if in the summer time, in a hot place where 
the sun will strike on it ; put in one, two, or more gallons 
of clear fermented cider ; leave the bung out, so that the 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 155 

air may have free circulation. In two or three weeks it 
will be fit for use. 

Cider may then be added, from time to time, in small 
quantities, taking care that no larger quantity ol it be 
added at any one time than there is vinegar in the cask. 

LABOR SAVING SOAP. 

To make it, take two pounds of sal. soda, two pounds 
of yellow bar soap, ten quarts of water, or in like proportion. 
Cut the soap into thin slices, and boil altogether two hours, 
and then strain through a cloth into a tight box or tub ; let 
it cool, and it is fit for use. Do not let it freeze. 

To use it : put the clothes in soak the night before you 
wash. The next morning put your water into your kettle 
or boiler. To every two pails of water, add about one pound 
of the soap. As soon as the water with its dissolved soap 
begins to boil, wring out the clothes from the water in 
which they had been at soak during the night, and put 
them into the boiling water, without any rubbing. Let 
them boil one hour, then suds and rinse them, ^nd they 
will be clean and white. They will need no rubbing, 
except a little on such places as are soiled, and for that 
no wash-board will be required. The clothes should be 
rinsed in two waters. 

Colored and woollen clothes must not be boiled as above, 
but may be washed in the suds weakened with water. 
The clothes will last longer by the use of this soap, and 
much labor will be saved. 

Six pounds of sal. soda, six pounds of bar soap, and 
thirty quarts of water, will make about fifty pounds of 
the soap. The soda costs about eight cents a pound, and 
the bar soap eight cents a pound. 

A pint measure will hold a pound of the labor-saving 
soap. This will save the trouble of weighing every time. 



156 THE FARMER'S AND 

TO PREPARE SOUSE. 

Pigs-feet, ears, etc., make a cheap and excellent dish. 
In preparing them, clean them tTiorou2;hly in water not 
very hot ; then peel the hoofs off with a snarp-pointed 
knife ; cut off the hard, rough places ; then singe them 
and boil them until they are thoroughly tender, or till 
they are with difficulty taken out with a fork, say five 
hours. Take them out, and put them in cold water. 
Mind and save the liquor in which they were hailed. 

Take the bones out and pack the meat down tight in a 
wooden or stone vessel. After it is packed close, boil the 
jelly-like liquor in which they were cooked, with an equal 
quantity of vinegar, for four hours. Put in as much salt 
as you think necessary, and add cloves, allspice and cin- 
namon, at the rate of about a quarter of a pound to one 
hundred weight of the meat. The vinegar, with these 
ingredients added, is to be poured upon the souse scalding 
hot. When used, fry it. 

SALTED CODFISH. 

Salted codfish is very much used in the United States, 
and is cheap, and usually kept for sale at all the country 
stores. Emigrants are sometimes, indeed, generally un- 
acquainted with the proper mode of cooking it, although 
it is very simple. 

The fish should be soaked in lukewarm water until the 
skin will easily come off, then take up the fish, scrape off 
the skin, and put it in fresh cold water. Then set it on 
a very moderate fire, where it will be very hot, but with- 
out boiling. It will take three or four hours to cook it 
soft. Dish it and use with drawn-butter, with boiled po- 
tatoes. It makes a most excellent dish. 

It makes a very nice dish for breakfast, to take the 
remains of the dinner, and hash them up with potatoes, 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 157 

moistened with water and a good deal of butter, all warmed 
together. 

TO PRESERVE CABBAGES. 

Gather them before the severe fall frosts. Let the 
coarse outside leaves remain on them. Fix a strong string 
around the stalk ; and suspend the cabbage from the timbers 
of the ceiling, heads downward. The cellar should be 
cool and dry. This will preserve them with certainty. 

Another good method is to cut the head from the stump, 
pack close in a cask, taking care to fill up all the vacan- 
cies with dry chaff, or bran, and keep in a dry cellar. 

TO KEEP HAMS DURING THE SUMMER. 

Take an old flour-barrel, or other dry cask, put a good 
layer of coarse salt in the bottom, and then put down a 
ham ; cover that with coarse salt, and put dowiv another 
ham, and so on till the cask is full, or all put in. 

Put the cask in a cool, dry place ; and the hams will 
all come out perfectly good, provided they went in good. 

TO MAKE HOMMONY. 

In the first place, you must have a mortar. The 
following is a description of one which you can make 
in a few minutes. Cut a block twenty inches long, 
and about ten inches in diameter, from a sound white- 
oak ; dress one end smooth ; mark out a square, six 
by six inches ; seven inches from the head saw in around 
the block about three inches deep, then shape the head to 
the square as prescribed ; cut into the block so as to form 
a flare in the shape of a wine-glass ; take off from a board 
four pieces eighteen inches long ; fit them snugly to this 
head, the top to flare in the clear eleven or twelve inches, 
and secure them with nails. For the pestle take an iron 



158 

Wedge, and a round stick about the size of the wedge ; 
split one end ; enter the wedge about two inches ; let an 
iron ring over the other end, that will fall down over the 
thin end of the wedge, and you have a mortar and pestle 
at your hand. 

The next is some white corn, large round grain, {not 
gourd seed) cut the tip ends off, shell none but what is ripe 
and sound, that which is tight on the cob ; take one gallon 
more or less, and pour boiling water to it ; let it stand 
about fifteen minutes, then commence beating ; take it out 
occasionally, and blow out the hulls. When you find the 
grains all broken, put it into water and wash it, and float 
off all of the light stuff that may arise ; then put it into the 
pot for boiling. Three or four hours are sufficient. Have 
a kettle of hot water at hand to fill up occasionally; stir 
it often, otherwise it will burn, which injures it very much. 
If you wish to put in beans, one pint to a gallon of hom- 
mony is sufficient. When done, stir in as much fine salt 
as would be required to season mush, then put it into stone 
or tin vessels. Set it in a cool place Jiot to freeze. When 
wanted for use, take the quantity necessary for breakfast 
or dinner, having put a small quantity of lard into the 
pan. Let it become hot ; then put in the hommonj and 
mash it up well, and when hot it is fit for the table. 

TOMATO FIGS. 

The medicinal qualities of tomatoes have greatly in- 
creased their cultivation, and every new preparation of 
the artixile is deserving consideration. A sample of "to- 
mato figs " has been deposited at the patent-office, of a 
very superior quality. From the taste, one should sup- 
pose all the good qualities of the fruit are retained. In 
appearance, the drum of tomatoes resembles one of figs so 
nearly, that they might easily be mistaken for the same. 



THF, EM,IGR ant's HAND-BOOK. 159 

The sample was deposited by Mrs. Steiger, of Wash- 
ington city, and the recipe was transmitted with it for 
publication. It is deeply to be regretted that, since the 
periodicals of the day are open to communications, so 
many valuable improvements are lost to the world, barely 
for the want of publicity. Others may have dried the 
tomatoes with a recipe, however less successful. 

Recipe. — Take six pounds of sugar to one peck (or six- 
teen pounds) of the fruit. Scald and remove the skin of 
the fruit in the usual way. Cook them over a fire, their 
own juice being sufficient without the addition of water, 
until the sugar penetrates and they are clarified. They 
are then taken out, spread on dishes, flattened and dried 
in the sun. A small quantity of the syrup should be oc- 
casionally sprinkled over them while drying ; after which, 
pack them down in boxes, treating each layer with pow- 
dered sugar. The syrup is afterward concentrated and 
bottled for use. They keep well from year to year, and 
retain surprisingly their flavor, which is nearly that of 
the best quality of fresh figs. The pear-shaped or single 
tomatoes answer the purpose best. Ordinary brown sugar 
may be used, a large portion of which is retained in the 
syrup. 

TOMATO CATSUP. 

The tomatoes, when fully ripe, should be bruised and 
boiled slowly for half an hour ; then strained through a 
cloth, and the liquid boiled another half hour, after add- 
ing salt and spices, but without any admixture of water. 
The scum should be carefully removed, so as to render 
the liquor as pure as possible. It should be bottled and 
kept in a cool place. After it has stood a short time, 
should any sediment be discovered in the bottles, (and in 
oraer to know with certainty, clear bottles would be the 



160 

best for this use,) the liquor should be poured off into other 
bottles. In this way, catsup of excellent quality — prefer- 
able to that from mushrooms, and clear as choice Madeira 
— can be readily made, in greater quantity and with less 
trouble than in the common way. 

THE RAW TOIVIATO. 

In this state, the ripe fruit should be picked from the 
vine and sliced up in vinegar like cucumbers, with a lit- 
tle oil, pepper, and salt ; or it may be eaten like ripe fruit, 
without seasoning. 

TOMATO SAUCE. 

Parboil the ripe tomato until the skin will slip ; peel 
and mash them ; and add to every pound of tomatoes one 
ounce of butter ; season with pepper and salt, and sim- 
mer over a slow fire until perfectly cooked. If, however, 
toast should be added to the sauce, the proportion of but- 
ter should be increased. 

FRIED TOMATO. 

Ripe tomatoes, sliced up and fried in butter, are, to 
many, quite delicious. 

TOMATO PICKLES. 

Pickles are made of the green fruit, by the same pro- 
cess that you would observe in the pickling of cucumbers, 
or any other articles. The ripe fruit may likewise be 
pickled, and, in fact, is a preferable article, as it is in that 
case highly medicinal, and has a much better flavor. 

TO PREPARE GREEN CORN FOR USE IN WINTiER. 

Take a large copper boiler of boiling water, and fill it 
with ears of husked corn such as are used for roasting 



161 

ears ; and after boiling about ten minutes, scrape off the 
corn with an iron spoon, and spread it in the sun to dry, 
either on plates, boards, or cloths. When thoroughly- 
dried, it is hung up in bags, and makes in the winter a 
most delightful dish — almost as good as fresh green corn. 
The best kind is the sweet corn, of which the best va- 
riety is that which shrinks most in drying. 

HOW TO COOK STRING BEANS. 

There is a way to cook this vegetable, by which it is 
very much improved both in appearance and flavor. The 
pods are split (not opened at the edges, but in aji opposite 
direction,) from end to end, and then cut into short pieces 
as in the usual way ; they are then boiled in any suitable 
vessel, separate from meat or other vegetables, a small 
quantity of pearlash or saleratus having been thrown 
into the water. When taken from the water, after having 
been sufficiently cooked, they are of a beautiful bright- 
green color, and will be found much more tender and 
delicate than when cooked without the saleratus. They 
are, of course, to be seasoned according to your own taste. 

H0# TO COOK GREEN PEAS. 

The common method of cooking this delicious vegetable, 
by boiling in water, is nearly destructive to its flavor — at 
least so says a lady, who gives the following method of 
preparing them for the table : " Place in the bottom of 
your sauce-pan or boiler, several of the outside leaves 
of head salad ; put your peas in the dish with two ounces 
of butter in proportion to half a peck of peas ; cover the 
pan or boiler close, and place it over the fire ; in thirty 
minutes they are ready for the table. They can either 
be seasoned in the pan or taken out. Water extracts 
nearly all the delicious quality of the green pea, and is 
as fatal to their flavor as it is destructive to a mad dog." 



162 THE FARMER^S AND 

WASHINGTON CAKE. 
So called, because it was a favorite at the table of Gen. Washingion. 

' Take two pounds of flour, one quart of milk, with an 
ounce of butter, heated together; put the milk and butter 
into the flour when about lukewarm, add a cent's worth 
of yeasty three eggs, and a tea-spoonful of salt ; place it 
in pans over night, and bake it in the. morning in a quick 
oven for three-quarters of an hour. 

TO CURE HAMS IN A CHEAP MANNER. 

Lay your hams in tubs, if convenient, flesh side up ; 
sprinkle salt on the fleshy part ; let them drain twenty- 
four hours ; then rub off* the salt, and lay them in a large 
tub. Then prepare a brine by dissolving one pound of 
salt in one gallon of water, and to every six pounds of salt 
three and a half ounces of saltpetre. Make a sufficient 
quantity to cover the hams. Boil the brine, taking off* the 
scum, and while boiling-hot pour it over the hams. Let 
them lie in the brine six weeks, then take them out, drain 
them, and smoke them. 

Smoking hams is done as follows : Make a smoke with 
corn-cobs, if you have them — If not, with sound hard 
wood, with damp saw-dust thrown over the fire to prevent 
a blaze. Suspend your hams above this at a distance, to 
receive the most of the smoke. When they are a good 
brown color, which will be in about three weeks, they 
are smoked sufficiently.* 

They should then be dried. When dry, sew any kind 
of cotton cloth over them, and whitewash the outside; or 
if you have plenty of ashes in a dry place, cover the 
hams with paper, and bury them in ashes till wanted for 
use. This preserves them from bugs, and it is thought 
to improve their flavor. 

♦ To make Weetphalia Hams, see Index. 



tiiE emigrant's hand-book. 163 

THE VIRGINIA MODE OF CURING HAMS. 

Dissolve two ounces of saltpetre, and two tea-spoonful^ 
of saleratus, in salt pickle (salt and water,) as strong as 
possible ; for every sixteen pounds of ham, add half a 
pint of molasses. Then put the hams into the pickle, and 
let them remain three or four weeks ; then take them out 
and smoke them with the hocks downward, to preserve 
the juices. 

TO MAKE POTATO STARCH. 

Take raw potatoes, pare them, and grate them ; place 
the pulp in a strainer ; pour cold water a number of times 
on the pulp while in the strainer, and catch the water in 
a vessel underneath. A white substance will be found 
in the bottom of this vessel. Now turn the water off, 
and when the sediment is perfectly dried, it is starch. 

TO IMPROVE THE FLAVOR OF MOLASSES. 

The use of molasses, or treacle, in the United States, 
is very great, and it can be had at almost every country 
store. Some people dislike the peculiar flavor of molas- 
ses, and the following is a mode by which it may be much 
improved. It will then answer for sweetening tea and 
coffee, or for preserves, cake, and the like. 

Take such quantity of molasses as may be desired ; 
add to it an equal weight of soft, pure water ; boil these, 
with about one-eighth part of powdered charcoal, for half 
an hour. Strain the whole, and let it evaporate slowly, 
till it is of the usual thickness of molasses. 

This is well worth trying by those who desire a good 
and cheap article of sweetening. 

PRESERVING BREAD MOIST. 
The other day, says an editor, T saw a lady, on taking 
her bread out of the oven, wash her loaves with cold 



164 THE farmer's and 

water. I inquired the reasons. She said there were 
two objects in it — one to wash off the ashes and coals that 
might adhere, and the other to keep the bread from becom- 
ing too dry and hard. After washing the loaves mode- 
rately, she put them in a barrel, and covered them closely 
with a clean cloth. 

POTATO YEAST. 

To two middling-sized boiled potatoes, add a pint of 
boiling water, and two table-spoonsful of brown sugar. 
One pint of hot water should be applied to every half pint 
of the compound. Hot water is better in warm weather. 
This yeast being made without flour will keep longer, and 
is said to be much better than any previously in use. 

TO PRESERVE HAMS FROM FLIES. 

For a score of hams, take about three quarts of salt, one 
pint of molasses, one-fourth of a pound of black pepper, 
and two ounces of saltpetre pulverized ; mix well to- 
gether ; lay the hams on the table with the rind down- 
ward ; rub the mixture over them with the hand, taking 
care to apply it to every part where there is no rind ; let 
them lay a week, and rub them over with clear salt, which 
continue once a week for four or six weeks, according to 
the size of the hams, and they are ready to smoke ; or if 
you choose after the mixture is sufficiently struck in, put 
them into brine for two or three weeks, and smoke. When 
smoked, hang them in a dry place. When a ham is cut 
for use, hang it or lay it where you please, the flies will 
not touch it. 

Some persons preserve hams, etc., from flies, bugs, etc., 
by simply dusting every part except the rind, with finely 
pulverized black pepper. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 165 

SPRUCE BEER. 

Take twenty-two quarts of water, and two quarts of 
molasses ; a table-spoonful of ginger, one-fourth ounce 
essence of spruce, and one pint of yeast — stir all well 
together, let it stand over night, and bottle for use. It 
should be kept in a cool place in warm weather. This 
will be found a good and healthy drink at all seasons of 
the year, but more so for the summer season. Another 
more valuable may be made, called 

" Minute Beer,^' which is to be made in such quantities 
as wanted for immediate use. Take as much water as 
may be wanted, say two quarts ; four large spoonsful of 
molasses, same quantity of good vinegar, and half a spoon- 
ful of fine ginger ; mix these well together in the water ; 
then to this mixture add half of a large spoonful of sale- 
ratus in powder, and stir and drink vvhen in a state of 
effervescence. This will be found not only a delicious " 
drink in warm weather, but also a healthy beverage. The 
proportions of the articles, to be more or less as may be 
the quantity of beer wanted. 

SAUSAGES. 

Proportion your meat about half fat and half lean ; cut 
it fine ; then to one hundred pounds of meat add two and 
a quarter pounds of salt, ten ounces sage, and ten ounces 
of pepper made fine. Warm the meat, and mix them in 
thoroughly and stuff them, and the thing is done right. If 
any wish to keep them through the summer good and fresh, 
put them in a clean firkin, warm fai and pour in until you 
cover them ; cover and set them in the cellar, and they 
will keep good the year round. 

ANOTHER MODE. 

Prepare the sausage meat in the usual way. Then, 
instead of putting ^he meat in skins, prepared from hog's 



166 THE farmer's and 

entrails, make bags of white clean cotton or linen clotb— 
as large say, as a man's arm, larger or smaller, as may 
suit, and of convenient length, say about a foot long — and 
put the sausage meat in these bags, and hang them up to 
dry. In this way you save much labor in preparing the 
skins, and considerable in cooking : slip off the bag from 
so much as is needed, and cut the sausage into slices of 
sufficient thickness for cooking. 

CORN MEAL. 

Corn meal should never be ground very fine. It in- 
jures the richness of it. Try it coarse. This is the rea- 
son why western " dodgers " are so good. 

RICE. 

Rice is often over-boiled. It should never be boiled in 
more water than it will absorb while boiling. Put two 
cups of rice in three cups of water, and in eight minutes 
after it commences boiling it is done. 

DIRECTIONS FOR FULLED CLOTH. 

BT J. M. HURD. 

The chain or warp should be twisted as even as pos- 
sible, and all of one kind of wool. The filling should be 
twisted even also, but not so hard as the warp. The 
filling for each web or piece should be spun by one per- 
son, and all of one sort of wool. Pulled wool should not 
be mixed with shorn, nor coarse with fine — for it will 
make it cockle or pucker in the mill, as pulled wool fulls 
much faster than shorn. If it is intended to receive a 
fine dress, the filling should be of the finest of your wool, 
spun even, coarse thread, and slack twisted ; but if it is to 



I 



167 

be merely fulled and dyed, it makes but little difference 
whether the finest wool is in the warp or filling, except 
that which is twisted the least will full the fastest. 

In weaving flannel to be fulled, it should be layed wide 
— at least a yard — the wider the better, and well beat up ; 
get in all the filling you can, and then your cloth may be 
well fulled and still be of good width, so as to cut to ad- 
vantage. 

If you wish linsey fulled, observe the same rules as to 
the filling, as for flannel ; but it makes no diflerence 
whether the wool is coarse or fine, so it is all nearly 
alike. 

If you want to put pulled wool into the same piece or 
web with shorn wool, fill it on to one end, so that it can 
be cut off* if it is likely to be troublesome in fulling. 

It is common in some places for people to dye their 
cloth before it is fulled ; but it is a bad practice — it fulls 
much harder, and a portion of the dye is beaten out in the 
operation. Again, wool takes dye much easier after being 
fulled, and make it whatever color you will, it will be 
much more brilliant if dyed after being fulled. 

TO DYE BLACK. 

Take a pound of logwood to each pound of goods to be 
colored. Soak it twelve hours in rain-water; then boil 
an hour. Strain the water in which it was boiled. 

Then take an ounce of blue vitriol for each pound of 
logwood — dissolve it in sufficient water to wet the goods. 
Dip the goods in it ; when wet, turn the whole into the 
logwood dye. 

If the goods are cotton they must be boiled fifteen min- 
utes — taking care to stir them all the time. Silk and 
woollen should not be boiled ; but should be kept in the 
water at scalding heat for twenty minutes. 



168 

Drain the goods, without wringin^!^ them, and hang them 
up in a shady place to dry. When they are dry, put 
them into scalding (not boiling) water that has salt in it, 
say a handful to a pailful of water. Let them stand in 
this water till it is cold. Then hang them up wet to dry. 

Boiling-hot suds sets the color of black silk the best. 
Sour milk will also do it. 

GREEN DYE. 

Take half an ounce of Spanish float Indigo, and a pound 
of oil of vitriol. Reduce the indigo to a powder. Stir 
these two together, then put in a small piece of pearlash, 
about the size of two barley corns. It will then ferment. 
As soon as this ceases, bottle it, and you may use it in 
twenty-four hours. This will not answer for cotton goods ; 
but will for all kinds of woollens. 

When you wish to use the above dye, wash the articles 
to be dyed till perfectly clear and free from color. Rinse 
them till they are entirely free from soap. If you want 
your goods of a pale green, put to each quart of warm rain 
water that is to be used, ten drops of the above mixture. 
If you wish a dark color, add a few drops more, accord- 
ing to your eye. Put the articles in the water thus col- 
ored, and let them remain in a warm place till you see 
they are right as to color. Drain them out in the shade, 
and when they are dry, wash them in soap suds. 

BLUE DYE. 

This is made as above, only using half the above quan- 
tity of vitriol. j 

SLATE-COLORED DYE. I 

Take sugar-loaf paper with vinegar ; boil it in an iron' 



i 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 169 

Utensil, with a little alum to set the color. Copperas and 
tea grounds make a good slate-color. 

A light slate-color, very convenient for emigrants in the 
country, is to boil white maple bark in clear water, with 
a little alum. Boil it in a brass vessel. 

All these dyes should be strained before beino- used. 
The goods then boiled in them, as in the case of the 
green dye. 

TO COLOR CLOTH etc., MADDER-RED. 

For ten pounds of flannel or yarn, take three-fourths of 
a pound of cream of tartar, and three-fourths of a pound of 
alum ; pound them fine and boil fifteen minutes in a little 
rain-water. Then add a little cold water and put in your 
yarn or cloth, and boil it three hours, stirring it often. 
Then take your cloth out and air it well. Throw away 
the above water. 

Next take a sufficient quantity of rain-water, so as no* 
to crowd your cloth ; put into it three pounds of madder, 
and heat it over a moderate fire as hot as you can bear 
your hand in it. Then put in your cloth and keep it stir- 
ring three hours at the same heat. Then take out your 
cloth, and add to this water two quarts of soft soap, and 
stir it up well, put in your cloth for twenty minutes, and 
then it is ready for scouring. The cloth or yarn should 
be well washed before being put into the first described 
water, and put into it while wet. 

The cost of this coloring will be about six cents a yard 
for cloth or flannel. 

TO MAKE WINDSOR AND CASTILE SOAP. 

Take white soap and slice it very thin. Melt it over 
a moderate fire. When lukewarm, add a little oil of 

8 



170 THE FARMER'S A^iD 

carraway. or other essential oil, to scent it. Turn it into 
moulds, and let it remain a week. 

To make castile soap, boil common soap in sweet lamp» 
oil three or four hours. 



DISEASES 



OF 



CATTIE, SHEEP, HORSES, SWINE, 



ETC. ETC, ETC. 



^ 



CHAPTER VII. 

The diseases to which horned cattle are liable, are 
few and simple, and generally yield to judicious treat- 
ment. 

There are three departments of practice to which re- 
sort is usually had, namely : Bleeding, Physicking^ and 
Setoning. 

BLEEDING 

Stands first ; and should be used in all cases of in- 
flammation. 

The following are the chief diseases, says Youatt, in 
which bleeding is required. 

1. Where animals in a thriving state rub themselves 
until the hair comes off, and the spot is covered with a 
dry scab ; while at the same time the eyes appear dull, 
languid, red, or inflamed, the breath hot, and the veins 
puffed up, and considerably larger than usual. 

2. In all kinds of inflammatory diseases, as of the 
train, lungs, kidneys, bowels, eyes, womb, bladder, shape, 
and udder, or in swelling of the joints. 

3. In the disease called blain, and in which bleeding, 
not only general but local, and local far more than gene- 
ral, has the best possible effect, the tumefaction usually 
subsiding almost immediately, and the beast speedily re- 
covering. 

4. When the glands or kernels between the jaws, or 
those of the throat, are enlarged, and especially if they 



174 THE FARMER S AND 

are only recently affected, immediate recouse should be 
had to bleeding, for otherwise the lungs will probably be- 
come diseased, and dangerous or consumptive hoose will 
speedily ensue. 

5. In bruises, hurts, wounds upon the head, strains 
in different parts, and all other accidents that may occur 
to the animal, and in which there is reason to apprehend 
considerable inflammation, bleeding will be proper. 

6. In violent catarrh or cold, bleeding is employed ; 
but, in slight cases, a few fever drinks will restore the 
animal. 

7. The yellows, when attended with feverish symp- 
toms, or constipation of the bowels, requires bleeding. 

The manner of performing this operation is too well- 
known to require any description. 

The Fleam is an instrument in general use for oxen, 
and the jugular or neck- vein is that which is mostly open- 
ed. Local bleeding is, however, in many cases particu- 
larly serviceable. In inflammation of the eye, the eye-vein 
is frequently cut; in foot-halt, we sometimes bleed at the 
toe ; and in inflammation of the bowels, or the udder, or 
even of the chest, blood is advantageously taken from the 
milk-vein. 

The quantity of blood that it may be proper to take away 
at one time .cannot here be determined ; but must be re- 
gulated by the size, strength, and condition of the animal, 
and the disease under which he labors. In many inflam- 
matory complaints too much can hardly be taken, provided 
the bleeding is stopped as soon as the patient appears like- 
ly to faint or to fall down. A strong healthy beast will 
bear the loss of five or six quarts of blood, without the 
least injury. Larger cattle, that are attacked with in- 
flammatory complaints, will profit by the abstraction of a 
greater quantity ; seven or eight quarts may be taken 



175 

away with decided advantage : but when it is necessary 
to repeat the bleeding, the degree of fever and the strength 
of the beast will regulate the quantity. The blood should 
flow from a large orifice, for sudden depletion is far more 
powerful in its operation than when the blood is suffered 
slowly to trickle down. The blood must never lesvffered 
to fall upon the ground, hut should he received in a measure^ 
in order that the quantity taken may be known. No ab- 
solute quantity of blood should ever be prescribed, but 
when extensive bleeding is demanded, the stream should 
flow until the pulse falters, or intermits, or the animal be- 
gins to heave violently, or threatens to fall, or other cir- 
cumstances show that the system is sufficiently affected. 
The beast should not be permitted to drink cold water 
immediately after bleeding, nor to graze in the field : the 
former has sometimes induced troublesome catarrh, and 
the latter may cause the orifice to open again. If this 
operation is performed in the summer season, it will be 
most p'rudent to fetch the cattle out of the pasture toward 
evening, in order that they may be bled ; and after that, 
to let them stand in the fold-yard all night, and drive them 
back to the field on the following morning. 

PHYSICKING, 

Is useful, 1st, soon after a cow calves, to prevent the 
milk fever. 

2nd. When cattle have eaten too greedily of clover, 
or other rich food, they become dull and lose their ap- 
petite. A slight purge will generally relieve them. 

3rd. When cattle become bound in their body. Give 
a purging drink immediately, and repeat" every twelve 
hours. A clyster will be useful, if the purge does not 
answer. 

4th. It is proper to purge in cases of "red-water." 



176 THE farmer's and 

5th. In the " yellows," give purging drinks, and tonics. 
6th. Whenever external inflammation is great, purging 
medicines must always be used. 

SETONS, 

Are useful in various cases, such as black-leg, hoose, 
joint-evil. Setons cause a discharge of diseased matter, 
and thus relieve the system of the cause of disease ; and 
also relieve the overloaded vessels in the neighborhood 
of the seat of inflammation. 

MODE OF INSERTING A SETON. 

A seton may be made of tow and horse-hair, braided 
together. This is the best kind of seton. It will answer, 
however, to use a strip of leather, or a small cord. The 
length should be about ten inches. Before inserting it, 
it should be dipped in oil of turpentine. With a seton 
needle, run it into the upper edge of the dewlap, and out 
at the lower edge. Then tie a large strong knot at both 
ends of the seton. In a day or two the matter will begin 
to run. After it begins to run, the cord should be drawn 
backward and forward every day, to increase the dis- 
charge. 

Sometimes it is necessary to create a discharge at 
once. This can be done by dipping the seton in the fol- 
lowing preparation : 

Yellow basilicon, one ounce ; powdered cantharides, 
(Spanish flies) three drachms ; spirit of turpentine, two 
fluid drachms. 

We shall now proceed to notice a few of the more com- 
mon diseases of horned cattle, sheep, and swine ; with fa- 
miliar instructions for their prevention and cure. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 177 

ABORTION, OR SLINKING OF THE CALF. 

The signs of this are as follows : the cow is uneasy, 
and does not eat. By feeling of the lower part of her 
horns, they will be found to be hot. She seems to have a 
longing for something, and to act in a strange manner. 
She should now be bled and physicked. Four to six 
quarts of blood should be taken from her, and the follow- 
ing purge given : 

Epsom salts, one pound. 

Powdered caraway seeds, half an once. 

Dissolved in a quart of warm gruel. 

If this does not quiet her, repeat it in three or four days. 
It is of the greatest importance that she should he kept in a 
pasture or stable by herself. 

BLACK FOOT. 

This is a new disease in the western country. The 
distinguished Governor Vance, of Ohio, says no remedy 
has yet been discovered for it. It is very fatal, producing 
death in a few hours. It is usually perceived in the fore- 
leg or foot : the animal becomes almost unable to move ; 
the flesh of the leg turns black, and mortification sets in. 
In the neighborhood of Plainfield, Illinois, one farmer 
lost a fifth of his stock by this disease during the past year. 
A correspondent of that excellent periodical, " The Prai- 
rie Farmer," published at Chicago, gives the following 
remedy, which it may be well to try ; especially as the. 
disease will generally prove fatal, if left to itself. 

" Last May, (says the writer,) I had a valuable year- 
ling heifer attacked by the following symptoms : when 
found in the morning, she was lying down, broadside, 
where she had apparently lain through the night, or 
longer, and was nearly helpless. One shoulder was 
considerably swollen, as far down as the knee-joint. 
S* 



178 THE farmer's and 

With the assistance of a neighbor, I raised her, and with 
considerable urging, induced her to walk slowly a short 
distance. She scarcely bore any weight on the affected 
limb, and when she moved it, it produced a slight crack- 
ling noise, similar to that produced by wringing one's 
fingers. She refused food, but took a little salt. There 
were some sweat-drops on the end of the nose or muz- 
zle. I am thus particular in describing the symptoms, 
because I do n't know certainly what the disorder was. 
Several farmers saw her, and said it was the black- 
leg, and thought she would die. Others thought she 
had been bitten by a rattle-snake ; and others again, that 
the swelling was caused by the animal having been 
hooked by another : but no wound was perceptible. 
Well, we took a sharp knife, and cut a gash through the 
skin from the knee-joint upward, about six inches. Under 
the skin there were numerous little bubbles of air. We 
bathed the limb in strong brine, and thrust some salt into 
the wound. Sometimes we bathed it with hot soap and 
water. The cut discharged continually a thin yellowish 
substance. She ate nothing for several days, except a 
little salt, and appeared very dull. After a ^veek or so, 
however, she began to recover her appetite, eating a little 
grass, and considerable dry earth, from a small patch 
near by which had been lately ploughed. She continued 
to improve slowly, and when nearly well, the leg began 
to swell below the knee ; but this was slight in comparison 
to the first attack, and finally disappeared of itself. The 
animal soon improved in flesh, and grew finely through 
the remainder of the summer. 

" Whether the treatment above described was of any 
service is more than I know. But in the absence of better 
information, I shall certainly pursue a like course under 
similar circumstances." 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 179 

There is a disease, called by some the Blood ; the 
Blood- Striking ; the Quarter Evil, etc., which is most 
terrible in its effects on horned cattle — like that of vio- 
lent poisoning. It is almost impossible to cure it ; and 
we hardly think it worth while to slate its symptoms and 
the means used to try to cure it. 

THE BLAIN. 

This is a frequent disease. The animal appears dull 
and low spirited. Its eyes red, with tears in them. The 
eyes swell a little. The principal symptom, however, is, 
Misters under the tongue, or at the back part of the mouth ; 
the pulse is quicker than usual,* and the bowels are con- 
fined. The flanks heave a little, usually. If the beast 
has had the disease some time, the saliva flows freely, 
often mixed with bloody, offensive matter. The animal 
becomes much reduced in flesh and strength ; and is in 
danger of dying from the enlargement of the tongue. 

Cure. — The firstthing to be done, is to cut the bladders 
under and along the side of the tongue. This will relieve 
the beast materially. 

If there be much fever, take four or five quarts of 
blood, and give the following purge : 

Epsom salts, one pound. 

Powdered caraway seeds, half an ounce. 

Dissolved in a quart of warm gruel. 

If the fever continues pretty severe, the above medicine 
may be given once or twice in twenty-four hours, till it 
subsides. 

The mouth should be washed with equal parts of myrrh 
and water; or a decoction of green tea, so as to heal the 

* The pulse of cattle may be the most readily fait at the back part of the lower 
jaw, where the artery comes down the channel between the jaws, and passes over 
the edge of the jaw bone. The natural pulse of a full grown ox is about fifty, to 
fifty-five beats in a minute ; but is quicker in milch cows. 



180 THE farmer's and 

ulcers. Thin gruel should be placed near to the animal, 
if the mouth is so sore that it cannot eat hay, and plenty 
of gruel administered by force. 

Sometimes the animal will become very weak, and 
lose its appetite. If this be the case, when the fever is gone, 
give it the following : 

Gentian root, two drachms. 

Tartrate of iron, one drachm. 

Powdered ginger, one drachm. 

In a pint of gruel. 

This should be given twice a day, until the appetite 
returns and the beast improves. 

0:^ Be careful that none of the matter discharged from 
the mouth comes in contact with any so^-e place, as it 
may cause ulcers. If ulcers do appear, they may be 
cured by the application of lunar caustic. 

CALVING. 

Cows which are shortly expected to calve, ought to be 
lodged at night in some convenient place under cover, for 
a week or two before calving, as it might be the means of 
saving the life of the calf, and perhaps of the dam like- 
wise. The day and night after a cow has calved, she 
should be kept warm. Let her not be exposed for some 
time to the dampness of the night. 

Cows which are near calving ought to be fed with better 
and more substantial food than usual. Grain of any kind 
is now useful, but it should be crushed, bruised, or coarse- 
ly ground. If the cleaning of a cow aft3r calving be de- 
layed, it may be promoted, according to Dean's " New 
England Farmer," by giving her a pail of warm water 
with some ashes in it ; or, according to " The Grazier's 
Guide," the only thing to be given is toast and weak wine, 
or good cider or perry. If wine be preferred, mix it with 



I 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 181 

an equal quantity of water. This toast should consist of 
four pints of wine and water, and about a pound and a 
half of bread toasted. 

Inflamed teats should be washed with two drachms of 
sugar of lead in a quart of water. Should tumors appear, 
apply a common warm mash of bran, with a little lard. 

To prevent cows from sucking their own milk, it is 
said that rubbing, the teats frequently with the most fetid 
cheese that can be procured, is an effectual remedy 

In order that it may be ascertained what is the proper 
time for cows to go dry previous to their calving, an ac- 
count should be kept of the time when each cow is put to 
bull, so that the cow may be dried off in due season. The 
following prescription for drying off cows is given in Monk's 
" Agricultural Dictionary." 

Take an ounce of powdered alum ; boil it in two 
quarts of milk till it turns to whey : then take a large 
handful of sage, and boil it in the whey till you reduce it 
to one quart ; rub her udder with a little of it, and give 
her the rest by way of drink ; milk her clean before you 
give it to her, and as you see need, repeat it. Draw a 
little milk from her every second or third day, lest her ud- 
der be overcharged. 

WEANING AND REARING CALVES. 

Mowbray says, " The calf may be sold (or taken 
from the cow) as soon as it has drawn the biestings or 
first milk, unless some defect in the cow's udder or teats 
may render it desirable for the calf to suck a few 
days, in order that the action may clear off any obstruc- 
tions, for which the butting of the calfs head is generally 
the best remedy. If intended to be fattened for the butcher, 
it must be kept in a pen particularly dry and clean ; 
suckled twice a day at regular hours ; always have the 



182 

first, which is the thinnest of the milk, and not be pernnit- 
ted to overcharge its stomach. Lumps of soft chalk are 
usually placed for the calf to lick, as an absorbent to neu- 
tralize the acidities engendered in the stomach from feed- 
ing on milk. It seldom pays to fatten a calf beyond ten 
or twelve weeks. 

" A calf may be weaned by being gradually accustom- 
ed to suck milk in a pail through the fingers. Many are 
reared on very little milk mixed with hay tea, linseed, or 
other slops ; fed an straw in the winter, and in summer 
on the common : such cannot be expected to turn to much 
account. The best cattle are reared from the teats, well 
wintered in good shelter, and full fed until they attain their 
growth. Warmth and dry lodging, are of the utmost 
consequence to the improvement of all young animals. 
Calves may, however, be reared to good profit, by being 
suffered to suck a veiy moderate quantity daily, the bulk 
of their food consisting of skim-milk, thickened with oat 
or wheat meal ; their winter food being carrots or Swe- 
dish turnips sliced, and cut straw, with a small quantity 
of hay, daily." 

" The Grazier's Guide," observes, " If the calf be in- 
tended for the butcher, it may be taken from the cow in 
about a week or ten days, and fed the remainder of the 
time by hand ; but the time of taking the calf away must 
be determined by the state of the cow's udder ; for unless 
that be free from kernels and indurations, the calf must 
be allowed to suck, as the jolting of its head is the means 
of healing or restoring the udder, and preventing the down- 
fall or inflammation in this part, which might cause much 
trouble, and even endanger the life of the cow. 

" But if the calf is intended to be reared, it should not 
be weaned until at least six weeks, or even two months 
old, whether male or female. For such, there is no food 



THK emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 17^3 

like the cow's milk ; and if she does not yield a sufficient 
quantity, that of another ought to be had recourse to. It 
is an incontrovertible fact, that the longer a calf sucks, 
not only the larger and stronger will it become, but it will 
also acquire a much better form and more robust health." 

Calves which come early, should be preferred for the 
rearing. Those which come late, do not acquire sufficient 
strength to bear the cold of winter ; they languish, and 
are reared with difficulty. Calves should not be weaned 
too suddenly, but by little and little. The less they are 
able to eat, the more they should be allowed to suck ; 
after a while they may be brought to take it from the 
pail. This is done by placing the hand in the milk, with 
the palm upward, and under the milk, while the fingers 
are raised above the surface of the milk for the calf to lay 
hold of with its mouth, which it does very readily, and 
sucks up the milk with great ease. 

When they are completely taken away, they should be 
fed with a little bran, and some of the most soft and fra- 
grant hay of the second crop ; they should be allowed 
plenty of the skim-milk, and now and then a little 
water in which barley has been boiled and broken up, or 
a little buttermilk occasionally. There is at first some 
difficulty in bringing them to drink, but a little perseve- 
rance will accustom them to it. 

Moderate warmth and dry lodgings are of the utmost 
consequence to young calves ; and if we would turn them 
to any good account, they must not be stinted either in 
these or in their food. Calves which have recently been 
weaned and are not at pasture, should be fed often, at least 
three times, and it is better five times a day. As soon as 
they are fif to follow the mother they should be let out, as 
they are greatly benefited by air and exercise. Calves 
sometimes require a habit of sucking one another, of which 
trick they may be broken by separating them. 



184 THE farmer's and 

Calves cannot be kept too clean, nor have fresh litter 
too often. If they are suffered to lie on their own dung 
and urine, they will become mangy, and scarcely ever 
thrive. They are subject to several disorders, such as 
diarrhea, dysentery, costiveness, etc. As a means of 
preventing the greater number of the diseases to which 
they are liable, the following rules are prescribed in 
" The Farmer's and Grazier's Guide." 

1st. Let the young calf suck the first nnlk. This 
will cleanse the bowels, and prevent costiveness. 

2nd. Let it suck from its mother at least two months, 
and then wean it gradually. 

3rd. Let its first food be such as is easy of diges- 
tion, and let it have plenty of sweet skim-milk, and good 
hay. 

4th. Keep it very clean, rubbing it well, occasionally, 
with a wisp of hay or straw 

5th. Keep its stable clean, and perfectly free from 
all impurities. 

6th. Let it have gentle exercise ; the best will be, 
following the mother in the meadow or pasture. 

7th. Do not stint it either in good food or good drink, 
and change its litter often enough to keep it clean, sweet, 
and dry." 

CALVES ; THEIR DISEASES. 

Diarrhea. — This disease is common with young 
calves ; at the time of weaning, especially. Weaning 
and change of food should not be too sudden. 

New milk should be used with skim-milk or gruel, 
whichever is to be substituted for tl\e mother's milk ; and 
this done gradually, making the new food come naturally 
to the calf. If the calf have a bad looseness of the bow- 
els, it should be attended to at once. Give two ounces of 
castor oil ; or four of epsom salts. Then give — 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 185 

Prepared chalk, two drachms. 

Powdered opium, ten grains. 

Do. ginger, half a drachm. 

Essence of peppermint, five drops. 
In half a pint of gruel, twice a day. The above is a 
dose for a calf under two months old. 

An old New-England farmer gives the following re- 
cipe : 

"Put into a suitable bottle about half a pint of good 
cider. Then open a vein in the neck of the calf, and let 
into the bottle about the same quantity of blood. Shake 
it well together, and before it has, time to thicken, put it 
down the calf's throat, which is easily done with the bot- 
tle. In thirty years use of it, I have never known it to 
fail in effecting a cure, by once giving it, except in one 
instance, and then a second dose proved effectual." 

CosTiVENESs. — When it occurs in calves but a few 
days old, the cure will be almost impossible. Epsom 
salts, dissolved in warm water, are recommended. The 
first dose may consist of two ounces of salts, in two or 
three quarts of water ; to be continued in ounce doses 
every six hours, in same quantity of water. If the calf 
is two or three months old, the first dose should be a quar- 
ter of a pound of salts in a gallon of warm water. Cos- 
iiveness is exceedingly difficult of cure ; and the farmer 
should be very careful to 'prevent it. Whenever the dung 
is perceived to be a little too hard, a mild purge should be 
given. 

The Hoose. — This is a bad disease in calves, speedily 
resulting in death. As soon as the calf is observed to 
cough considerably, he should be put into a dry, warm 
stable. A light bleeding, and a small dose of physic 
will now be good, and probably cure the patient. Some- 
times this disease is prevalent in certain neighborhoods, 
and carries off many calves. 



Jjk$6 THE FARMER'S AND 

Should the animal get rapidly worse, and his cough be 
very distressing, the following will be a good medicine, 
if the calf be six or eight months old : 

Oil of turpentine, one ounce. 

Linseed oil, three ounces. 

Powdered ginger, one drachm. 

To be taken once a week. 

Some people use half a pint of lime-water every morn- 
ing, followed by -a table-spoonful of salt, the same after- 
noon. This is considered a good remedy, and is easily 
procured. 

Canker. — This is known by soreness of the mouth, 
which prevents the animal from eating as much as usual. 
Little pimples are seen about the gums, and the animal 
grows poor. Sometimes the tongue and gums are swol- 
len, and the calf is feverish. 

Give at once one or two ounces of epsom salts, daily, 
until it is better ; washing the mouth in a solution of 
common alum, say half an ounce of alum to a pint of 
water. 

To Prevent Calves from Sucking. — Most persons 
are aware that some calves, when they wish to have them 
weaned, are disposed to continue the habit of sucking, and 
in this way give much trouble. To prevent this, take 
strong old cheese, of which make a paste, and apply 
the same to the cow's teats. 

Scours in Calves. — When the calf is attacked, it 
should be put in a warm, dry stable, and not be permit- 
ted to suck more than half the quantity of milk it is wont 
to do ; but should be put to the cow regularly three times 
a day. Make a tea of equal portions of white-oak, beech, 
dogwood, and slippery-elm bark ; and give small doses 
twice a day, and the calf will soon recover. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOR. 187 

COLD, COUGH AND CATARRH. 

Sy.^iptoms. — The animal is dull and stupid. Eyes 
weep ; muzzle dry ; hair sticks up ; appetite bad y 
milk fails. Pulse sixty to ninety. Bowels costive. 

Treatment. — Take from it six quarts of blood. Then 
a purgative as follows : 

Epsom salts, one pound. 

Powdered caraway seed, half an ounce ; dissolved in a 
quart of warm gruel. 

Afterward give the following, night and morning* 

Tartar emetic, one drachm. 

Powdered digitalis, half a drachm. 

Nitre, three drachms. 

Mix in a quart of warm gruel. If the bowels get cos- 
tive, repeat the first dose. 

House the animal, and give it a mash of bran, if there 
be little or no fever. Continue the above treatment, till 
the muzzle becomes cool and moist, and the pulse down 
to fifty or fifty. five. 

CHOKING. 

If the object which causes choking be so far down that 
it cannot be reached by the hand, it must be forced down 
the throat. To do this, give the beast half a pint of oil ; 
then put a gag in its mouth ; then take a flexible rod of 
some kind, (a whip-handle will answer,) pass it gently 
down the throat till it touches the object. Now press 
firmly and steadily upon it, until it is removed. 

In Spain, it is a common practice, wlien a beast is 
choked with apples, potatoes, and the like, for two or three 
men to sieze the beast, and lay its neck over a log of 
wood, and tlien strike the apple a smart blow with a bil- 
let of wood, so as to crush it. This must be done cau- 
tiouslV) however. 



188 THE FARMER S AND 

COW-POX. 

Symptoms. — Small sores on the teats, which, when 
broken, discharge a thin matter. These are surrounded 
with inflammation. The sores become ulcerated, if ne- 
glected. The animal shows signs of fever ; eyes heavy ; 
milk lessens. 

Treatment. — Open the bowels with one of the epsom 
salt purges before named. Then give : 

Tartar emetic, one drachm. 

Powdered digitalis, half a drachm. 

Nitre, three drachms, in a quart of warm gruel. 

Wash the teats in warm water, and apply, night and 
morning, the following wash : 

Sal ammoniac, quarter of an ounce. 

Vinegar, half a pint. 

Camphor spirits, two ounces. 

Goulard's Extract, an ounce.* Mixed and kept in a 
bottle for use. 

GARGET, OR DOWNFALL IN THE UDDER. 

Symptoms. — The udder becomes swollen, hard, and 
hot, and sore to the press. The milk is less in quantity, 
and sometimes mixed with blood and matter. Sometimes 
the hind legs are swollen and inflamed, especially the hip 
joint, hock, and fetlock. 

Treatment. — Take the animal out of pasture. Bleed 
three to five quarts. The next morning give the epsom 
salt purge. Feed light for a couple of days on mashes 
and a little hay ; and when sent back to pasture, send to 

* Goulard's Extract is thus made: sugar of lead — one ounce; alcohol — 
one ounce ; water — one quart, mixed together.. 

A TOLERABLE SUBSTITUTE FOR THE ABOVE, is aS folloWS : 

Bruised oak bark — six ounces; boiled in two quarts of water till it is reduced to 
three pints. Or: alum — quarter of an ounce ; water — one quart. 



189 

a light one. The diseased parts of the udder should be 
rubbed with the following ointment : 

Soft soap, one pound. 

Mercurial ointnient, one ounce. 

Camphor, melted with alcohol, one ounce ; rubbed well 
together. 

During the whole progress of the disease, the bowels 
should be kept loose with the epsom salt purge. 

THE HOOVE, HOVEN, OR BLOWN. 

Causes. — Sudden change of pasture, from a poor to a 
rich one. Too many turnips, too much clover, etc., etc., 
etc. 

Symptoms. — The beast swells ; breathing hard ; much 
pain. Difficulty of breathing, and swelling increase. 

Treatment. — Medicine is of but little use. Do not 
drive the animal aiout ; be very particular on this point. 
Some people plunge a lancet, or a small pocket-knife into 
the animal, midway between the haunch bone and the 
last rib. This is called a good remedy. The wound is 
left open a day or two to suffer the gas to escape. 

To Prevent Hoven. — At times when cattle are par- 
ticularly liable to hoven, on a change of pasture or food ; 
and early in the spring, and about the time of early frost 
in the autumn, take a bushel of fine wood ashes and a 
bushel of common salt ; mix and use in the usual man- 
ner of salting cattle. Use this mixture for a few days. 
This is a capital preventive. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 

Symptoms. — The animal is uneasy, getting up and 
lying down often ; strikes his belly with his hind feet ; 
bowels costive ; the dung, if any is voided, is hard and 



1-90 

covered with mucus. The urine voided with pain, pulse 
quick, and flanks heave. It is distinguished from colic 
by the fever, dry muzzle, and hot mouth. The attack is 
sudden ; attended sometimes by trembling, deafness, and' 
insensibility to the voice or the whip. 

Treatment. — Bleed six or eight quarts ; then give the 
strongest purges. If the croton nut can be had, make the 
following physic : 

Epsom salts, half a pound. 

Croton nut, ten grains.* 

Rub the nut down to a fine powder, and give it in a 
half a pint of warm gruel, and immediately afterward the 
salts in gruel. 

It may be necessary to repeat the bleeding and purging. 
Castor oil n^ay be given in large quantities for a purge. 

LICE ON CATTLE. 

Some prefer an ointment, others a wash : we give both 
to the reader. 

OINTMENT FOR LICE. 

Lard, seven ounces. 

Mercurial ointment, one ounce. 

Mix together, and rub wherever the lice are. 

WASH FOR LICE. 

Corrosive sublimate, two drachms. 

Rub it down in alcohol, two ounces. 

Water, one pint. , 

Feed the beast well. 

It is said, on good authority, that dirt or fine sand sifted 
into the hair, will entirely destroy vermin on cattle. It 
may be well to try it. 

* If the Croton nut cannot be hnd, use large quantiticB of Castor oil. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 191 

MAD ITCH. 

The effect upon cattle following hogs that are fed 
on green corn, cut up and thrown to them when in the 
roasting-ear state, is very fatal. The hogs will chew 
the corn-stalk, and extract all the sap, and then throw it 
out^ These fibres thus thrown out, with all the sap ex- 
tracted, will be eaten voraciously by the cattle. It con- 
tains no nutriment, to give fermentation to enable the 
animal to ruminate ; and it thus lays dormant and inac- 
tive in the many folds, or stomach ; becomes perfectly 
compact and indigestible ; creates fever, and in the end 
'destroys the animal. 

Cattle destroyed by eating these fibres of the corn-stalk, 
will first show the symptom by a wild stare of the eye ; 
and m its first stages will frequently become cross, and 
even attack their keepers. They will then begin to rub 
the nose and head against the fence, until the skin and 
flesh are torn and lacerated in a most frightful manner, 
and in the end die in great misery. I have lost many 
fine cattle in this way, and have never been able to save 
one thus afflicted. The entire symptoms are similar to 
what is called the mad itch, which I have no doubt is 
created by the same cause, taking into the many folds 
indigestible matter, incapable of fermentation and rumi- 
nation. 

THE MANGE. 

Cattle that are kept well, and properly taken care of, 
will not have this disease, unless they take it by con- 
tagion. 

Symptoms. — Sometimes there is an eruption on the 
skin ; the animal appears hide-bound ; the hair is dry and 
wiry ; the hair comes off easily ; the animal is constantly 
rubbing itself; a white scurf appears on the skin. 



192 THE FARMER S AND 

Treatment. — Make an ointment as follows : 

Flour of sulphur, one pound. 

Mercurial ointment, two ounces. 

Common turpentine, one pound and a half. 

Lard, one pound and a half. 

Melt the turpentine and the lard together, and stir in the 
sulphur when these begin to cool ; afterward, rub in the 
mercurial ointment, by placing the whole mass on a flat 
stone. This precaution is necessary to prevent the hand 
coming in contact with the mercurial ointment. 

This ointment should be rubbed in whenever there is 
mange. No danger will happen if the beast do not take 
cold. 

Some medicine should also be given. The following 
will be good : 

Flour of sulphur, two ounces. 

Black sulphur et of antimony, one ounce. 

Nitre, two ounces. 

Powdered ginger, one ounce. 

Divide these into four powders ; give one every other 
morning, in gruel. 

RED WATER. 

Symptoms. — Purging, followed by costiveness ; appetite 
poor ; pulse and breathing quick ; pulse often weak ; the 
insides of the nostrils and eyelids pale ; legs cold ; milk 
small in quantity ; the urine becomes brown, and some- 
times black. I 

Treatment. — Change pasture : if the beast be quite ill,' 
house it, and feed on light mashes and a little hay, Giva 
the following : 

Epsom salts, one pound. 

Powdered ginger, half an ounce. 

Carbonate of ammonia, half an ounce. 



193 

Mix in one quart of boiling water. 

Divide the above into four parts, and give it once in six 
hours. 

As soon as the bowels are well open, give the follow- 
ing, every day : 

Powdered ginger, one drachm. 

Powdered gentian root, one drachm. 

Spirits of nitre, one drachm. 

Mix in a pint of gruel. 

Sometimes it will be necessary to take away a little 
blood, before giving any medicine. If the urine should 
continue to be black, an ounce of nitre may be given with 
the above drink. 

The following, taken from the London Farmer's Jour- 
nal, is highly recommended ; it may be well to try it. 

" For a full grown cow dissolve two pounds epsom salts 
in two or three pints of boiling water, and give it when 
new-milk warm ; then keep her six or eight hours without 
food. If then the salts should have not operated, give 
four or five quarts of warm water, and drive her about 
gently ; in a quarter of an hour it will operate ; then give 
her as much warm water as she will drink, and turn her 
out to graze, if the weather be dry. My brother, J. 
Waistell, of West Park, has used the above remedy for 
upward of thirty years, and has not in all that time lost 
one beast by the red-water. Before he commenced using 
it, he almost invariably lost cattle annually by that disease. 
His cattle were less frequently afflicted than formerly, 
which he attributes to his having underdrained a great 
part of his farm, which was wet and boggy. The reme- 
dy was communicated tc him by a relation, Mr. Kendallj 
a cow-keeper, who for many years kept many cows, and 
occupied part of Mary-le-bone Park, at London." 
9 



194 THE 

SCOORING ROT ; OR ROT. 

This is a very prevalent disease in cold wet lands. It 
is an inflammation of the large- inestines. 

Symptoms. — Painful attempts to void dung ; which is 
thin, offensive and slimy. The beast is in pain, and rest- 
less ; a rumbling noise is heard inside ; the animal gets 
thin. By and by the dewlap hangs down flabbily ; the 
dung is very liquid and offensive, and appears full of 
bubbles ; the hair is wiry and sticks up ; much fever ; 
pulse quick, eyes inflamed and dull. 

Treatment. — House the beast at once. Keep on dry 
food. If poor and weak, a thick gruel should be given 
three times a day made of oats, barley and beans, ground, 
with a little linseed cake added. Bleeding must be re- 
sorted to, proportioned to the feverish symptoms. Now 
give: 

Epsom salts, one pound. 

Powdel^ed caraway seeds, half an ounce : in a quart of 
warm gruel. 

In a few hours give the following : 

Prepared chalk, two ounces. 

Powdered oak bark, one ounce. 

Opium, two scruples. 

Powdered ginger, two drachms ; in a quart of warm 
gruel. 

If the disease does not seem better, the above may be 
used once or twice a day for three days ; if it then con- 
tinues bad, give the following drink twice in twenty-four 
hours, for a week : 

Mutton suet, one pound. 

New milk, two quarts. 

Boil them together till the suet is dissolved, then add 

Powdered opium, half a drachm 

Powdered ginger, one drachm. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 195 

This is an obstinate disease, and may prove fatal, no 
matter what you do. The greatest care must he taken until 
the least is recovering, both in the food and drink of the 
animal. 

STAGGERS. 

Symptoms. — Dullness ; a desire to sleep ; reeling and 
staggering. 

Treatment. — Bleed ; give the epsom salt purge, (page 
187) and continue till the bowels are opened thoroughly. 
This will usually give relief. 

TREMBLES. 

This extraordinary disease prevails in some regions of 
the West. It is a most alarming one. 

Symptoms. — In the earliest stages of this malady, in 
the cow, it may not display its existence, if th^ attack be 
not violent and the animal left to itself; for in the begin- 
ning, as in all stages of the disorder, the appetite seems 
to be unimpaired, and the thirst not increased. Even 
this early stage, not less than the more advanced, appears, 
however, to be attended with constipation of the bowels. 
The animal at length begins to mope and droop, to walk 
slower than its fellows, and to falter in its gait. If, under 
these circumstances, it should be driven, and attempt to 
run, the debility and stiffness of its muscles are immedi- 
ately apparent. It fails rapidly, trembles, pants, and 
sometimes seems blind, as it runs against obstacles, but 
this may arise from vertigo ; at length it falls down, lies 
on its side quivering, and is not, perhaps, able to rise for 
several hours, sometimes never. Now and then, the 
quivering amounts to a slight convulsion. When the 
disease is not violent, the animal, after a longer or shorter 
period, is again on its feet ; but its capacity for muscular 



196 THE farmer's and 

effort is greatly impaired, and, if hurried in the slightest 
degree, it is seized with trembling and stiiTness, and may 
even fall again. Of the state of the circulation, when it 
lies seriously ill, but little is known, as the pulse has not 
been inspected. One observer perceived that the nose of 
a heifer was hot, but others have found that part and the 
skin generally cool. Perhaps their observations were 
made in different stages of the disease. While lying 
unable to walk, the animal will still eat freely, and also 
take drink, but does not seem to have excessive thirst. Its 
costiveness continues to the last, when the malady goes 
on to a fatal termination. Of the symptoms which pre- 
cede dissolution, we could not obtain a satisfactory ac- 
count. Our witnesses generally declared, however, that 
the abdomen does not swell in any stage of the disease. 
When it assumes a chronic form, the animal is liable, for 
weeks and even months, to muscular infirmity under ex- 
ercise ; Icteks gaunt and thin, its hair assumes a dead ap- 
pearance, and sometimes falls off in considerable quan- 
tities, especially from the neck. 

Treatment. — '' We met with no medical gentleman," 
says Dr. Macllhenny, " who had subjected animals labor- 
ing under this disease to a systematic, or even varied, 
empirical treatment. All the people of the district have 
one and the same indication to fulfil, that of opening the 
bowels. When this can be effected, the animal, they 
say, scarcely ever dies — when it cannot, death occurs. 
For the fulfilment of this indication, epsom salts have been 
administered in very large quantities, even to pounds, but 
without effect. Drenches of lard and various mixtures 
have also been given, with no satisfactory result. Judge 
Harold, near South Charleston, has exhibited calomel, 
followed by lard — no essential benefit. Dr. Toland has 
administered the oil of turpentine, in doses of eight, 



THE EMIGRANT g HAND-BOOK. 197 

twelve, and sixteen ounces, without advantage. An opin- 
ion is prevalent, that drenching animals injures them by- 
causing them to struggle. On the whole, we found among 
the people of the district a total want of confidence in all 
kinds of cathartic medicines ; and an exclusive reliance 
on Indian corn. Some preferred old corn, some new, and 
others that which had been frost-bitten. This is fed to 
all those species of animals that are accustomed to eat it, 
and is said never to be refused. The more the animal 
will eat, the greater is the hope of the owner. It is said 
to produce p^r^m^, when every other means have failed, 
and then it is affirmed, recovery is almost certain. On 
these points we found but one opinion in the district. 
Several of its physicians, after trying other things, had, 
with the people, settled down on this. 

'' We found llood-leiting not in favor. Dr. Toland 
supposes it has, generally, been employed at too late a 
period. Many non-professional persons spoke, of having 
resorted to it without advantage, and some thought it had 
done harm. 

" Throughout the disease, rest is considered a sine qua 
non to the favorable effect of any measure, and of itself, 
in mild cases, sufficient ; that is, if they be not aggravated 
by exercise, the disease will wear itself out, or spontane- 
ously subside." 

YELLOWS. 

Symptoms. — Dullness ; loss of appetite ; the beast de- 
sires to be alone ; milk decreases ; bowels costive ; front 
teeth sometimes loose ; the whole frame has a yellowish 
hue, like the jaundice in man. 

Treatment. — If the pulse is strong and quick, bleed 
moderately, but not otherwise. Give the epsom salt purge, 
(page 187,) keep the bowels open by half-doses of the 



19S THE FARMER S AND 

same as occasion may require. While you do this, give 
every morning the following : 

Powdered gentian root, half an ounce. 

Powdered ginger, one drachm. 

Epsom salts, two ounces. 

In a pint of warm gruel. 

At night, give 

Calomel, one scruple. 

Opium, one scruple, in thick gruel, well mixed. 

After the yellowness is gone, give the above gentian 
root dose twice a week for a month. 

HORN AIL. 

The tollowing is from the pen of a disting uished Veter- 
inary surgeon, and is worthy of particular notice. We 
copy it from the " Farmers' Cabinet :" 

Horn Ail. — Having persuaded myself that the prac- 
tice of boring horns and applying spirits of turpentine, etc., 
in the disease called Horn Ail, (which is so very preva- 
lent in America,) is entirely wrong in principle, and has 
the most pernicious consequences in practice ; I deem it 
not improper to recommend, by the means of your valua- 
ble periodical, a system of cure by which, during a long 
veterinary practice, both in France and Philadelphia, 
New-York and H8,rrisburgh, I have been successful in 
most cases ; while, by the common way of proceeding, no 
animal is saved, some either not having been attacked by 
that disease, or getting cured by nature itself. 

This disease is also called the " red- water," or blood 
in the back or loins, and arises principally from the cattle 
being at grass during the summer on lots which are very 
dry and without shade, and from their being exposed to 
excessive heat of the sun, and to great cold in winter 
time J there are various other causes, as moory pastures, 



THE EMIGKANT S HAND-BOOK. 199 

moist weather, etc., to all which cattle in this country are 
generally exposed ; sour and mouldy hay, and the exclu- 
sive feeding on corn-stalks, also contribute a good deal to 
this disorder. 

As this disease is of an inflammatory character, the 
application of spirits of turpentine and the like, which 
produce inflammation, is entirely wrong. This is shown 
by the strong throbbing of the heart, and the mixture of the 
urine with the blood. If you stir with the forefinger in 
the nostrils of the animal, a good deal of blood will be 
discharged from them, and if you insert your hand into 
the straight gut, you may bring out whole lumps of blood. 
Boring the horns is, at most, curing symptoms and not the 
disease ; the farmer is unfortunately confirmed in this 
proceeding by the fact, that matter sometimes is dis- 
charged from the bored horns ; but it is neither recom- 
mended by any experienced veterinarian, nor mentioned 
in any scientific work on the veterinary art. I therefore 
feel myself bound to recommend to every owner of cattle 
the following mode of cure, tried a good many times by 
me with success : 

When an animal is observed to be suflering from this 
disorder, one or two quarts of blood, according to the size 
of the animal, are to be drawn immediately from a neck 
vein ; then two table-spoonsful of the following powder 
are to be given three times a day, the powder being pre- 
viously dissolved in a pint of lukewarm water ; this is 
to be continued until the animal recovers. 

Glauber salts, six ounces. 

Cream of tartar, two ounces. 

Purified saltpetre, two ounces. 

Powdered root of althea, one ounce and a half. 

It is necessary besides, to rub the animal frequently 
during the disease, principally on the back. But if the 



200 

animal shoula be costive, either of the following clysters 
is to be given : 

Take a handful of camomile flovi^ers, two handsful of 
flax-seed ; boil them in two quarts of water, strain them, 
and add eight ounces of linseed oil and three table-spoons- 
ful of common salt. This clyster is to be applied by 
means of a syringe. 

Should these articles not be at hand, take one quart of 
wheat bran, pour two quarts of boiling water on it, strain 
and add eight ounces of flax-seed oil, and two ounces of 
common salt. This clyster is to be lukewarm when ap- 
plied to the rectum, or straight-gut, by the means of a 
syringe or a fit funnel. 

MURRAIN. 

A correspondent of the New-Genesee Farmer recom- 
mends ashes to be given to stock as a preventive of mur- 
rain. Wm. Wallace, of Barcelona, Ohio, says he thinks 
saltpetre much better — says a piece about the size of a 
large kernel of corn should be given once a week. A 
neighbor of his has used this mode of prevention for twenty 
years, with almost entire success. 

He further says, " When cattle are attacked with this 
deadly disease, I would recommend giving them, say, two 
ounces of gum gamboge, dissolved. This is a powerful 
physic ; and it is very necessary to get something to pass 
the animal. I believe that the dry murrain, always 
precedes the bloody murrain, and is the cause of this last 
and most fatal disorder, which is often quite prevalent in 
the Western country." 

HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE AGE OF NEAT CATTLE. 

By the teeth. — The calf is usually born with two fore 
or cutting teeth, and at a month old, the whole eight are 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 201 

cut. The age is then guessed at by the wearing down of 
these teeth until the calf is eight months old, when they be- 
gin to become narrower and smaller. At eight months the 
two centre teeth are smaller than the rest ; and from that 
time until eighteen months the others gradually diminish, 
until the whole are very considerably lessened in size and 
stand apart from each other. 

At two years old the two middle teeth are pushed out, 
und succeeded by two permanent ones ; at three there are 
four permanent teeth ; six at four years ; and all the 
eiglit at five, when the animal is said to be full-mouthed ; 
but he is not actually so until six years old, when all the 
eight are level. 

A good judge of cattle, will generally determine the 
age with considerable accuracy for many years after that. 
From six to nine he will be guided by the wearing down 
of the teeth, and after that by the diminution in their bulk, 
as in the milk teeth. At nine the two middle fore teeth 
are evidently smaller and narrower than the rest ; at ten 
the two next are so ; and so on until twelve, when, as in 
the steer of two years old, the teeth again begin to stand 
singularly apart from each other. 

By the horns. — The surface of the horn continues 
nearly smooth until the expiration of the second year of 
the animal's life, when a wrinkle or circle of thicker horn 
begins to be formed around the base. This is«fully com- 
pleted in a twelvemonth, and another ring then begins to 
appear, so that if the perfect rings or circles are counted, 
and two added to them, the age of the beast is supposed 
to be ascertained. These rings, however, are not clear 
and distinct, and it is very easy to remove one or two of 
them with a rasp, at least to the unpracticed eye, when 
the animal begins to be unmarketably old. In addition 
to this a well-known fact should be stated, that if a heifer 
9* 



202 THE farmer's and 

takes the bull at about two years old, the first ring is form- 
ed a twelvemonth before its usual time, and, consequently, 
she would always appear to be, reckoning by her horns, a 
twelvemonth older than she really is. 

After all, the age, as denoted by the horn, can only be 
calculated in the cow ; these rings do not appear in the 
ox or bull until the animal is five years old, and then 
they are most frequently too confused to be accurately 
counted. 

PHYSICKING CATTLE. 

Purging medicines operate by increasing the evacuation 
of faeces from the bowels, and thus often removing a very 
considerable source of irritation. They augment the 
secretion of the exhalent vessels situated on the internal 
coat of the intestines, and thus, by producing watery stools, 
lessen the quantity of fluid through the system. They 
divert the increased flow of the blood from the aflfected 
organ, and determine it to the bowels, which is well elu- 
cidated in red-water ; and they have a peculiar influence 
on the nervous system, augmenting the energy of the 
nerves distributed to the intestines, but diminishing it 
in other parts of the system. 

The chief purgatives in use for neat cattle are glauber 
salts, epsom salts, Barbadoes aloes, linseed oil and sul- 
phur. In obstinate constipation of the bowels, ten or 
fifteen grains of the farina of the croton nut, freshly pre- 
pared, may be added with good effect. One pound of 
glauber, or epsom salts, will purge a full-sized beast. 
Aloes are very properly getting into disuse ; they are 
uncertain in their eff*ect, they require very considerable 
doses of them to be given in order to act alone, and if they 
should be received into the rumen they are apt to disgust 
and nauseate the animal. Half an ounce, or six drachms 
of them, however, may be added to the salts in particular 



THE EMIGRANT S IIAND-BOOIT. 203 

flrsea&es. Where there is considerable fever, or the at- 
tack of fever is apprehended, there is no purgative so 
beneficial as the epsom salts. In bad cases, tv/enty-four 
ounces may be given at a dose, and eight ounces of sul- 
phur every six hours afterward, until the full, purgative 
effect is produced. Linseed oil is rapidly superseding 
the more expensive and more uncertain castor oil ; the 
dose is from a pint to a pint and a half. As a mild ape- 
rient, and in cases where there is no great degree of 
fever, and a violent purge is not required, there are few 
better things than sulphur. Where nothing else is at 
hand, and the case is urgent, common salt is no contempt- 
ible medicine : a pound of it dissolved in water, will 
produce a fair purgative effect, but it should not be given 
if the animal labors under a fever. The following are 
the cases in which purgative medicines are found 
useful : 

1. We have known some old graziers who, when feed- 
ing old cows, (during summer) have given them a purging 
drink about every six weeks, by way of keeping off the 
downfall, which in general has the desired effect, and has 
even caused them to fatten more rapidly. 

2. A purging drink is very properly given to cows 
soon after calving, in order to prevent the milk-fever. 

3. Neat cattle are naturally of a greedy and ravenous 
disposition, and their appetite is hardly ever satisfied. 
Milch cows in particular, if feeding on herbage, or other 
food agreeable to their palate, will often continue to graze 
until they are in danger of suffocation. Thus the powers 
of digestion become over-burdened, and the animal ap- 
pears dull and heavy, and feverish symptoms are induced. 
Purgatives will give the most effectual relief in these 
cases, and if the appetite does not return soon after the 
physic, a cordial ball will be useful in restoring it. 



204 THE farmer's and 

THE PULSE OF CATTLE. 

The blood flows through the arteries by the force 
impressed upon it by the heart. This is felt in the 
pulsations of the arteries, which correspond with the con- 
tractions of the heart, and indicate not only the number 
but the nature of these contractions, whether propelling 
a greater or smaller quantity of blood. By the number 
and the force of the pulsations, the degree of fever is 
indicated with considerable certainty. The heat of the 
mouth, and the base of the horns, will be important 
guides ; but a much safer one, and more clearly ascer- 
taining the extent and the nature of the fever, is the 
action of the heart faithfully represented by the pulse. 
Wherever the finger can be placed on an artery that is 
not too thinly covered by cellular membrane of fat, and 
that has some firm substance beneath, the pulse may be 
felt ; but most conveniently so where, at the back part of 
the lower jaw, the artery comes from the channel between 
the jaws, and passes over the edge of the jaw-bone, to 
ramify on the face. 

The natural pulse of the full-grown ox varies from fifty 
to fifty-five beats in a minute, but is quicker in milch cows 
than in oxen, and particularly toward the period of par- 
turition. A pulse much quicker than that here stated, 
denotes fever or inflammation ; while one much slower 
indicates sluggishness of the circulation, or debility. 

In another part of this volume, may be found remarks 
on the pulse of neat cattle, to which the reader's attention 
is invited. See index. 



1 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 205 

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 

RED WATER. 

Symptoms. — Dullness; off its feed; panting: restless- 
ness ; flanks drawn up ; costive at times ; sometimes pur- 
ging- 

Tkeatment. — Put the animal in a dry place ; bleed 
about a pint, if full grown ; then give, 

Epsom salts, one pound. 

Powdered ginger, one scruple. 

Gentian root, one drachm. 

Warm water, two ounces. 

Linseed oil, one ounce. 

Give in warm gruel — one fourth or one half if a lamb. 
The belly should be well fomented with hot water. 

THE BLOOD. 

This disease is well known. 

Symptoms. — Dullness ; head hangs down ; eyes heavy 
and bloodshot ; heaving at the flanks ; difficult to move ; 
staggering ; stretching out the fore-legs to ease himself. 

Treatment. — Bleed instantly and freely ; at least a 
full pint. The jugular vein is the proper vein to bleed- 
from. The sheep should be bled until it is evidently 
weakened by it. Then give two ounces of epsom salts 
in warm gruel every two hours, till the beast is thorough- 
ly purged. The purging should be continued for two or 
three days. The bowels well purged, give the following 
medicine, morning and night, till the sheep is evidently 
better : 

Powdered digitalis, one scruple. 

Tartar emetic, ten grains. 

Nitre, two drachms, in warm gruel. 



20^ TirE farbier's and 

THE ROT. 

Symptoms. — The first thing which indicates the presence 
of this disease, is the unwillingness of the affected animal 
to move about. It lags behind the flock, ascends a slope 
with difficulty, and has a listless, heavy, pithless appear- 
ance. Cough, varying in frequency and violence, but ex- 
tremely harassing, is present at every period of the dis- 
ease, and is always increased on the slightest exertion. 
At first, this is accompanied by expectoration of the mucus 
of the air tubes ; but in no long time purulent matter, in- 
dicative of more extensive inroads on the constitution, be- 
gins to be coughed up, and goes on increasing in quantity 
and becoming worse in quality, till the termination of the 
disease. The wool becomes fine, white, thin, and brittle 
in the pile, and is easily brought away in masses by the 
slightest pull. The appetite is, throughout the disease, 
voracious, and though all the bad symptoms may be pre- 
sent, still the animal keeps up an appearance of plump- 
ness. This, however, is hollow and deceitful ; and the 
rapid loss of flesh which immediately succeeds, shows 
with what insidious certainty the malady has been pro- 
gressing. Owing to the falling off in flesh and in fat, the 
neck appears to have acquired additional length, and the 
eyes to have sunk within the head. Sooner or later, the 
skin beneath the neck becomes distended with serous 
fluid, and from this the disease has acquired the name of 
Poke. The word, however, is far from applicable, as it 
might, with equal propriety, stand for any other disease 
attended with dropsical accumulations. 

Treatment. — Common salt is the very best medicine 
that can be used. Let the animal have constant .access 
to this. 

But something more should be done. Evacuate the 
bowels by an epsom salt purge, and give a table-spoon- 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 207 

ful of the following mixture, night and morning, for a 
week : 

Common salt, eight ounces. 

Powdered gentian root, two ounces. 

Powdered ginger, one ounce. 

Tincture of Colombo, four ounces. 

In a quart of water. 

After a week, give the above every morning, and at 
night two table-spoonsful of the following : 

Common salt, eight ounces. 

Powdered gentian, two ounces. 

Powdered ginger, one ounce. 

Tincture of Colombo, four ounces. 

Spirits of turpentine, three ounces. 

Mix in a quart of warm water. 

ANOTHER RECIPE FOR THE ROT. 

Fox-glove leaves, two ounces. 

Boiling water, two pints. 

Pour the water on the leaves, cover up the vessel, and 
keep it in a warm place six or eight hours. Then strain 
it. 

Give two tea spoonsful morning and evening, for six 
days : then omit it two or three days, and give again. 

DROPSY. 

When it is the concluding symptom of a disease, it may 
1)6 reckoned part of the complaint itself, and treated accord- 
ingly. Often, however, it is the first thing which attracts 
the attention of the shepherd, and when such is the case, 
it will usually be traced to long exposure to cold and wet. 
In this event, the best plan is to bleed largely, and give 
two or three smart doses of epsom salts. When it occurs 
in young lambs, sweet spirits of nitre, given in the quan- 



208 THE farmer's and 

tity of a tea-spoonful twice a da}', is found to be attended 
with the happiest effects. Tapping, or, as it is popularly 
termed, stabbing, oy sticking, to permit the escape of water, 
is the cure resorted to in South Africa, when it appears 
in old sheep, after exposure to rain ; but this ought never 
to be resorted to unless under the guidance of a medical 
person. It would be much better at once to kill the 
sheep. 

FOOT ROT. 

Spirits of turpentine applied to the parts affected, with 
a feather, twice a day, is recommended. 

SORE TEATS. 

When a ewe is observed to hinder the lamb from suck- 
ing, its teats should be examined. If much inflamed, a 
poultice should be applied, and the lamb placed under 
the charge of another nurse. Suppuration vvill thus be 
promoted, and the matter may be allowed to escape by 
making an opening for it at the place it points. If there 
be only a little tenderness of the skin, all that is required 
is the washing of it with a solution either of sugar of 
lead or sulphate of zinc, eight grains to the ounce of 
water. 

BLOWN, OR BLAST. 

Treatment. — Some persons thrust a small knife into 
the paunch. This frequently gives relief, but leaves the 
animal liable to have the difficulty again. If the sheep 
be driven about gently, for an hour or two, it may get re- 
lief in the early stages of the complaint. 

If not, evacuate with the following gentle purge: 

Epsom or glauber salts, one ounce. 

Peppermint water, four ounces. 



209 

Tincture of ginger, one drachm, or a little powdered 
ginger. 

Powdered gentian, two drachms. 

Boiling water, two ounces. 

Give every six hours till purged; and half the quan- 
tity every morning for four days. 

YELLOWS. 

Symptoms. — Dullness ; yellowness of the eyes, mouth 
and skin, generally; urine dark at times. 

Treatment. — As soon as the least yellowness is seen, 
take the beast to a poor pasture, and purge it with the 
following : 

Epsom salts, two ounces. 

Powdered caraways, quarter of an ounce. 

Dissolved in warm gruel. 

Half-doses of this should be given every morning for a 
week or more. Should the animal be weak, give, 

Gentian, two drachms. 

Colombo, one drachm. 

Ginger, half a drachm, in warm gruel. 

THE SCAB. 

This is an infectious disease, and a pest to the shep- 
herd. 

Symptoms. — Itching to a painful degree ; sometimes 
the beast tears the wool off in mouthfuls ; thin, ragged, 
mean look. The body often has upon it dry scurf, or red 
spots ; the roots of the wool often matted together. 

Treatment. — Some persons use tobacco infused in 
boiling water, at the rate of a quarter of a pound to a gal- 
lon of water. Others use mercurial ointment ; but prob- 
ably the best way is, to use an ointment made as follows ; 



2J0 THE FARMER S AND 

Flour of sulphur, one pound. 

Venice turpentine, four ounces. 

Rancid lard, two pounds. 

Mercurial ointment, four ounces. 

Rubbed well together. 

Great care should be observed in rubbing the ointment 
into the body of the sheep. The wool should be parted 
by the hand, and as thorough an application be made as 
possible. Continue this treatment till the sheep ceases 
its violent scratching ; using the ointment every other 
day. There is not the slightest danger in this treatment, 
and it is usually efficacious. 

PURGING. 

Treatment. — In slight cases, suet boiled in milk is suffi- 
cient. If very bad, give once or twice a day the following : 

Prepared chalk, quarter of an ounce. 

Powdered ginger, half a drachm. 

Powdered opium, two grains ; in warm gruel, till the 
disease gives way. 

GRUBS. 

The grub in the head of a sheep, is the larva or mag- 
got of a fly, which deposites its egg in the nose, generally 
in the month of August. The egg soon hatches, and the 
young maggot soon makes its way up into the cavities, 
called the frontal sinuses, where it attains its growth, 
causing constant irritation and disease, and not unfre- 
quently death. Arrived at its growth, it falls to the earth, 
enters it, and in a short time emerges a perfect insect or 
fly, ready to commence the career of reproduction and 
destruction. We formerly lost many sheep from the grub, 
and could find no cure for them, or but very partial ones, 
after it became evident they were diseased. Our course 



THE Ex^IIGRANT S HAND-BOOK 211 

was preventive. About the time the fly made its ap- 
pearance, which is easily known by their exhibiting great 
alarm, running from one part of the field to another, with 
their noses close to the ground, etc., we caught one sheep, 
and with a wooden spatula, or flat stick, rubbed the nose 
with tar. We then placed tar at the bottom of our salt- 
ing troughs, over which the salt was sprinkled, and this 
brought their noses frequently in contact with the tar. 
This course we found a great preventive. Sheep, du- 
ring the period they are exposed to the attacks of the fly, 
should have access to a ploughed field, or if such is not 
convenient, a few furrows should occasionally be opened 
in their pastures for their benefit. Inhaling the dust, or 
rubbing their noses in it, renders the mucus disagreeable 
to the fly, or enables the sheep to expel the larva when de- 
posited. With these preventives, we have rarely lost a 
sheep from the grub, and think, that in most cases, they 
will be eflTectual. 

WINTER-KEEPING OF SHEEP. 

The following is extracted from Fessenden's Complete 
Farmer : 

" Perhaps there is no domestic animal that requires 
more nice and constant attention than the sheep, and no 
other that will more richly pay for generous keeping. 
Though he may not be liable to disease, nor require a 
better quality of food than neat stock, still that manage- 
ment which will keep cattle in good case will not answer 
for sheep. His habits and mode of feeding are entirely 
different. For instance, in the winter season, a cow may 
be kept tied to the stall twenty-two hours out of the twen- 
ty-four, and, if well fed three times a day, keep her flesh 
and get sufficient exercise for her health. Serve a sheep 
in the same manner, and it would not probably live a 



212 THE FARMER S AND 

month. It is natural for sheep to move about and change 
situation. Turn a flock of hungty sheep into a pasture, 
they will run to the end of it before they begin to eat, 
feed them in troughs, they will run over all till they come 
to the last, when they have it in their power. They are 
almost continually shifting situation from hill to dale, from 
one kind of food to another; and it is a fact, that sheep 
will thrive better on two or three different kinds of ordi- 
nary fodder, than they will to be confined to one kind that 
is of a superior quality. 

" The proper time to yard sheep in the fall, is while 
they are yet in good order from fresh feed, and before the 
frost takes the nourishing qualities out of the grass : but 
a time in which many sheep are not folded, they are left 
to nibble over the frozen pastures till they lose the flesh 
of half a summer's keeping, and which takes half a sum- 
mer to regain. It is a great error which is persisted in, 
with an idea to save fodder. But setting aside the injury 
done pastures by close feeding at this season of the year, 
the sheep which stray away and are lost, and the time 
spent in hunting them, which are not idle considerations, 
the farmer would m.ore than get repaid for his extra fod- 
der, and a few weeks' attention in yarding his sheep soon- 
er, by preserving their health and condition. When they 
are put in winter-quarters, they require as much variety 
as possible ; not that they want so much room, but they 
need a number of apartments. Two yards and one shed 
will do very well for one flock ; or what will answer the 
same purpose, if a large number of sheep are to be kept 
near each other, have the yards in a row, and one more 
yard than flocks of sheep. Then, by shifting one flock to 
the spare yard, it leaves another vacant, and so on. Thus 
may all be changed, which should be done at every time 
of feeding. As fast as the yards are empty, the food 



THE^MIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 213 

should be put into them, and never while the sheep are 
there. One hundred sheep are enough to be kept togeth- 
er. Cleanliness is of the utmost importance. Their yards 
should be littered with straw or something of the kind, 
constantly, or they will be in danger of losing in a degree 
a relish for their food. 

'' The next thing necessary is, to have proper places for 
your sheep to eat hay in, which are the common board 
mangers, and may make partings to the yards. Take 
six joists, say three inches square, and four feet long ; 
have the boards of a length, then nail two of them to the 
joists set up perpendicularly, in such a manner that one 
joist will be in the middle of each board, and the other two 
at 4iie ends, and that the top edge of the boards will be 
one foot from the ground ; then nail short boards to the 
ends two feet and a half long, the width of the manger, the 
next board on the sides to be placed eight inches from the 
lower boards ; then board it tight to the top of the joists 
and the manger is finished. A manger eighteen feet 
long, of this description, will accommodate thirty sheep. 
Single mangers may be made along the outside fence of 
the yard, which do not require to be so wide. The great 
superiority of these mangers over racks is, first, the facil- 
ity of putting hay into them without dropping it on the 
ground ; secondly, it obviates the danger of hay-seed fall- 
ing on the wool of the sheep ; and thirdly, it prevents 
any waste of fodder. The next thing after mangers for 
hay, should be a place appropriated for feeding out roots, 
which every farmer should raise to a certain extent. Al- 
though we cannot turn them to so good an account as the 
English feeders do, on account of the severity of our win- 
ters, still a proportion of them, as food for our stock, is of 
great importance. In order that the farmer may make 
the most of his roots, he should have a cellar fixed to re- 



214 

ceive them in the fall, without too much labor, and acces* 
sible at any time in the winter, without endangering them 
by frost. The cellar should be placed as near the yard 
as practicable, with a watering place at hand. A good 
way of washing roots is, to have an oblong box that will 
hold two or three bushels, with the bottom perforated with 
auger holes, and rockers placed on the under side of the 
box ; then, by pouring a little water and rockmg them, 
the dirt will directly wash through the bottom of the box. 
They should then be cut fine with a sharp shovel, and 
they are fit for feeding out. Browse in the winter occa- 
sionally for sheep is very palatable, and is of considerable 
use in preserving their appetite, and as a change of food ; 
but care should be taken to select the right kind. There 
are many kinds of hard wood, of which the bark and b^ds 
are very injurious.* The bark of the black cherry eaten 
by ewes with lamb, is almost sure to produce abortion. 
Generally, winter-green is to be preferred to any other 
browse. White and yellow pine are best. 

" Regularity in feeding sheep is of prime consequence 
in cold, dry weather. It is not necessary to feed them 
oftener than three times a day, if discretion is used in the 
quantity of fodder. In warm weather, and especially it 
it is muddy, they should have little at a time, and be fed 
four or five times a day. Daubenton and others calculate 
that two pounds of hay are sufficient for the support of 
one sheep a day, (which, by the way, is not enough.) 
Calculations of this kind, if made with the utmost accu- 
racy on one, or any number of sheep at one time, will 
not apply to the one sheep at another ; because so much 
depends on circumstances. A sheep that will eat three 
pounds of hay in a cold day, will not, perhaps, eat more 
than two in a warm day following ; and still less in a damp 

* The wood disease, so much complained of in France, is wholly owing to sheep 
eating fresh buds. 



I-IIE EMIGRANTS HAND-BOOI^. 215 

one. Not that they require so much more food in cold 
weather than in warm, but that sudden changes afTect 
their appetites and without injuring their health. Again, 
a sheep of proper form and inclination to fatten, will not 
need so much nutriment to preserve its health, as one of 
the same weight of a coarse, rawboned, uneasy make. 

From present experiments, the introduction and raising 
of SHEEP on the vast prairies of the West are to be antici- 
pated, and it would not be surprising if there should be a 
great change in the territory to which the consumers of 
wool must look for much of their raw material. Hitherto, 
^e New-England and Middle States have principally fur- 
nished the market with wool. But sheep are already begin- 
ning to acquire importance in the view of the farmers and 
planters of the West and South ; and if the importation of 
1100 merino bucks in a single year into South America, 
produced such a change in their flocks, why may not 
equally as striking a result be effected in the Western amd 
Southern States by a similar introduction there ? Mil- 
lions of sheep could be sustained at little expense on the 
belt of the oak-timber land running through Georgia, 
seventy miles wide by one hundred and fifty miles long. 
Indeed, there is scarcely one of the Southern States but 
would furnish some good section for the keeping of flocks 
on the uplands. Planters are now also actually begin- 
ning to collect their flocks. The sheep-raising States of 
the North must expect competition. The farmer in the 
higher and colder latitudes, who has to fodder his flocks 
for a long winter, will certainly feel the effect of this new 
direction of sheep husbandry, brought, as he will be, into 
competition with those who enjoy the advantage of an al- 
most perennial spring. So soon as the planter ceases to 
be absorbed in the production of cotton, the streams of the 
South will be lined with mills, and various operations of 



216 THE farmer's and 

machinery. The Northern and Middle States cannot but 
^ee that it will do so. There are many locations south 
and west of the Delaware, where three sheep at least can 
be kept as cheap as one can on the confines of the Can- 
adas. 

Pasturage to almost any extent covers the prairie range, 
. and grass or grain for a short winter's feed, are cut and 
reaped by machines at a trifling expense. One gentle- 
man, it is stated, in the vicinity of Buffalo, New- York, 
having a prairie farm in Illinois of some five hundred 
acres, purchased two thousand sheep, which he placed 
upon it, under the care of two faithful shepherds. The 
sheep were kept without difficulty in the best of health, and 
the proprietor, as the first fruits of his enterprise, received 
six thousand pounds of good wool, worth thirty cents per 
pound. The transportation from IlUnois to Buffalo cost 
£i,bout one cent per pound. These facts are mentioned, 
not to discourage effort, but to prepare the producer of 
wool to meet the condition of things that must soon take 
place, in a state of general peace and depression of price 
of all the staple products. 



DISEASE S OF SWINE. 

Swine are subject to a few diseases tiiat are not very 
easy of remedy. The best preventive is, to keep them 
clean and cool in summer, and to allow no carrion or filth 
whatever, to remain in or near their styes. This rule 
would require to be more attended to in these provinces. 
The diseases they are most subject to are, pox or mea- 
sles, blood-striking, staggers, quinsy, indigestion, catarrh, 
peripneumonia, and inflammation of the lungs, called 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 217 

heavings. When pigs are sick, if they will eat they will 
take medicine in their food ; but if they will not eat there 
is scarcely any help for them. As aperients, cleansers, 
and alternatives, sulphur, antimony, and madder, are the 
grand specifics, and are truly useful. As cordials and 
tonics, treacle and strong beer in warm wash, and good 
peas and pollard. In the measles, give sulphur, etc., and 
if the animal require it, cordials occasionally. In stag, 
gers, bleeding, fresh air and nitre. In catarrh, a warm 
bed, and warm cordial wash ; and the same in quinsy, or 
inflammation of the glands in the throat. If external 
suppuration appear likely, discharge the matter when ripe, 
and dress with tar and brandy or balsam. The heavings 
or unsoundness of the lungs in pigs, like the unsoundness 
of the liver in lambs, is sometimes found to be hereditary ; 
there is then no remedy. This disease in pigs is often the 
consequence of cold from wet lodging, or of a hasty feed- 
ing in a poor state ; in a certain state it is highly inflam- 
matory, and without remedy. Unction with train oil, and 
the internal use of it, have been thought beneficial. Salt, 
nitre, and sulphur, occasionally given in the food of swine, 
will be found a good preventive of diseases in these use- 
ful animals. 

MEASLES. 

Occasional doses of sulphur, and lighter food. 

KIDNEY WORMS. 

We sometimes have a hog or hogs become weak in the 
loins, and finally drop their hind-parts without being able 
to raise them again, which, when they move, are dragged 
along. This, in ninety-nine cases out of one hundred, is 
produced by what are called kianey worms. To prevent 
this, or to effect a cure after a hos has, as we say 

10 



218 THE farmer's and 

broken down, requires nothing but a free use of copperas 
dissolved in water, and mixed with meal so as to form a 
dough. It will require some six or eight doses to cure a 
hog after he has got down. All farmers should give this 
preparation to their hogs several times in the spring of the 
year — in fact, it is good for them occasionally through 
the year. I had a hog down last year, dragging itself 
about for several days before I gave him copperas, which, 
after I commenced, soon effected a cure, and he was on 
his feet again. 

Copperas will destroy the large worms frequently found 
in the bowels of a hog, as well as those that are in the 
kidneys. One ounce, or less, is enough for a hog at a 
time, and given once a day is enough in any case. Sul- 
phur is also good for hogs, and enough of it will make 
them shed lice, if they have any, and may be given with- 
out any risk of danger ; or at least, if there is any danger 
in giving it, I have never found it out. — Southern Culti- 
vator. 

J. P. Kirtland, in the " Western Farmer" of Cincinnati, 
says that " a persevering use of corn, soaked in an alka- 
line solution, a weak ley for instance," will cure this dis- 
ease in swine. He says an extensive use of this remedy 
for many years, enables him to say it is infallible, if it be 
applied before the animal has lost its appetite. 

BLIND STAGGERS. 

A correspondent of the " New Genesee Farmer" gives 
the following remedy for this disease in swine : 

" As to the cause of this disease, I am not able to speak 
decidedly ; but suppose it to arise from a determination of 
blood to the head. Leaving the cause, therefore, to abler 
hands, I will proceed to the cure. Catch the hog, and 
with a sharp knife, make an incision through the skin, 
two or two and a half inches in length, vertically on the 



THE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOCTK. 219 

forehead, about one and a half inches below the top of 
the head, and insert into the wound and under the skin, 
as much fine salt as possible. Repeat the application 
hourly, and it will very soon effect a cure." 

CARE OF BREEDING SWINE. 

Swine kept for breeders should never be shifted from 
pen to pen a short time before littering. They must not 
be disturbed or kept in small pens. When they are al- 
lowed to roam at large, they generally seek retired places 
in the woods, and in such cases they are seldom known 
to destroy their young by design or by accident. Let 
them have their accustomed residence at such times. 



SPAYING SWINE. 

Take a crooked stick, in the form of the arm when 
bent, about eighteen inches long ; to each end attach a 
string, doubled, about eight or ten inches long, which put 
in a noose over the hind-legs, just above the hocks; hang 
them up, head downward ; tie the mouth to prevent squeal- 
ing ; let a boy stand at their back and hold the fore-legs. 
Then with a sharp knife split the belly just between th^ 
hind four teats, sufficient to insert two or three fingers of 
the left hand — draw out the pride, and cut it off with the 
knife in the right hand ; then with a large crooked needle 
and waxed thread, sew up the wound in the following 
manner : Stick the needle through from outside to inside, 
then bring out the needle on the other side of the wound, 
from inside to outside ; cut off the thread sufficiently long 
to tie; repeat the same so as to make three stitches ; then 
tie them, being careful not to draw the stitches too tight, 
and the work is done. 



220 THE FARMER S AND 

SALT FOR HOGS. 

Hogs, during the process of fattening, should be sup- 
plied with salt as often as once a week. It is no less 
advantageous to them than the ox, the cow, or the sheep, 
and, when liberally given, is a preventive of many dis- 
eases to which, from their continual confinement, and the 
effects of hearty food, they are inevitably exposed. Some 
hogs, also, are greatly benefited by it, and will partake 
of it once or twice as eagerly, and to all appearance with 
as good zest, as they do of corn or meal. Charcoal is 
also highly salutary in its influences upon the hog. 

BREED OF SWINE. 

As much depends on the breed of swine as of any do- 
mestic animal, as relates to the profit of keeping. The 
old-fashioned, thin, long-legged, long-nosed, gaunt-bodied 
hogs are now, we believe, hardly tolerated. We are but 
little acquainted with the different breeds of their succes- 
sors, and shall not, therefore, assume the responsibility of 
recommending any particular race. O. Fiske, Esq., of 
Worcester, an able, enlightened, and patriotic cultivator, 
says : " My hogs are of the Bedford breed, so called in 
England ; and experience has proved to my satisfaction, 
that this breed is far the best that has been introduced into 
our country. They are quiet in their nature, fat easy, 
and with little expense or trouble. I have had some 
weigh at twelve months old, about three hundred and 
forty pounds, and a considerable number of eighteen 
months old, four hundred pounds. 

'* The marks of a good hog are, a moderate length in 
proportion to the size of the body; the .nose short; the 
cheek plump and full; neck thick and short; quarters 
full ; hair fine and thin ; with a symmetry adapted to the 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 221 

breed to which it belongs. Above all, it is essential that 
it be of a kindly disposition to fatten early." 

The sow should be selected with great care, broad and 
straight-backed ; wide hips ; a great many teats ; short 
legs, and fine bone. It is said that the sow will produce 
the stronger and better litter if not allowed to breed till a 
year old, and the boar should not be younger than that 
age when put to sows. Sows may be allowed to breed 
till they are six years old, and boars till five ; and both 
be made good pork after this period, by methods which do 
not require description. One male, according to " The 
Complete Grazier," should not be permitted to have ac- 
cess to more than ten females in a year. Sows will 
usually have pigs twice a year, and should be put to the 
males at such times as will bring one litter in April and 
another early in September. 

" Those sows are accounted the best breeders," says 
" The Farmer's Assistant," " which have about ten or 
twelve paps. They should be kept clean and well littered ; 
but should not have too much litter at the time of pigging, 
lest they overlay their pigs in it. At the end of a week 
or ten days, they should be let out of their styes into the 
yard for three or four hours each day. Where several 
sows are farrowing about the same time, they must be 
kept in separate apartments in the sty, lest they devour 
the pigs of each other. 

SOWS EATING THEIR PIGS. 

Young sows will sometimes eat their own offspring, 
which may be prevented, by washing the backs of the 
pigs in an infusion of aloes ; and for this purpose, the 
sows must be watched. It is said that supplying them 
with plenty of water at this time, will prevent any mis- 
chief taking place of this kind. 



222 THE FARMER S AND 

Raw salt pork, cut in small pieces, and given, will 
prevent them from eating their pigs. I have seen it given 
after they had ate two or three of their litter, with good 
success. But to prevent any mischief, it should be kept 
by them at this time. A western farmer observes, "I 
have been careful for about a week before my sows were 
about to farrow, to give them some butcher's refuse meat, 
which does not cost much ; if easy to be procured, give 
them a plenty, and I will venture to say that they will 
not eat their pigs." 



DISEASES OF THE HORSE 



The diseases to which this noble animal is liable, are 
numerous ; and we cannot give as much room to this de- 
partment as the importance of the subject requires. Every 
farmer would do well to procure a copy of a book called 
" The Horse," by William Youatt, republished from the 
London edition, and adapted to the American public, by 
Lea & Blanchard, of Philadelphia. It is a work of great 
merit. 

We annex a few of the most useful hints on this sub- 
ject. 

CURE FOR COLIC IN HORSES. 

Dissolve one pound of epsom or glauber salts, and 
one-fourth of a pound of ground ginger, in three pints of 
boiling water, and when sufficiently cool, (about blood 
warm,) pour it down the horse. Keep it well shaken, 
so that the horse may get all the sediment, which contains 
most of the ginger. In very severe attacks, bleed in the 



223 

moutli, which I think expedites the cure, if done before 
giving the ginger and salts. This medicine not only 
cures the colic, but regulates the stomach ; so that there 
is no tendency to colic, any more than if the horse had 
never had it. Colic in horses is generally brought on 
by long feeding on corn, or a change of feed, and over 
feeding and hard driving immediately after, and perhaps 
too much water, which causes an unnatural distension of 
the stomach ; then inflammation, which is shown in colic, 
founder, etc. Colic is not as common as many imagine. 
Horses are frequently driven so long without being per- 
mitted to stop, that the great amount of water secreted in 
the bladder causes excessive pain, and is frequently dis- 
charged with great difficulty, and sometimes cannot be 
discharged at all. We relieved a mare, a short time 
since, from all the symptoms of a severe colic, by ex- 
citing a desire to void the water, by pouring water slowly 
on the ground near her. 

BOTS. 

In the " Southwestern Farmer" is given the following 
mode of treatment for hots, which is there pronounced a 
sure remedy, if used before the stomach of the horse is eaten 
through and ruined. Give one quart of warm sage tea ; 
half an hour after, give another quart ; half an hour after, 
give one gill of tar ; and half an hour after, give a pur- 
gative. The sage being an astringent, will cause the 
bots to let go of the stomach, and the tar kills them. Pre- 
vention is better than cure ; but if cure is needed, it is 
hoped this may be effectual. It has been so in some 
cases. 

FOUNDER. 

As soon as you find your horse is foundered, bleed him 



224 THE farmer's and 

in the neek in proportion to the greatness of the founder. 
Then draw his head up, as common in drenching, and 
with a spoon put far back on his tongue strong salt, until 
you get him to swallow one pint. Be careful not to let 
him drink too much. Then anoint round the edges of his 
hoofs with spirits of turpentine. 

A founder pervades every part of the system of a horse. 
The phlegms arrest it from the blood ; the salt arrests it 
from the stomach and bowels ; and the spirits arrest it 
from the feet and limbs. 

YELLOW WATER. 

Symptoms. — A breaking out on the skin, the sores run- 
ning together, and forming large scabs of matted hair the 
.size of the hand ; drooping ; swelling and stiffness of the 
legs ; emaciation ; enormous appetite ; reeling and stag- 
gering in walking ; great reluctance in moving about, etc. 

Treatment. — A gill of spirits of turpentine, and a gill 
of spirits of camphor, shook together in a pint of warm 
water, every morning for a week. 

SWELLINGS. 

To scatter swellings on horses or other cattle, take two 
quarts of proof whiskey, or other proof spirits, warm it 
over coal, but not to blaze ; dissolve it in a pint of soft 
soap. When cool, put it in a bottle, and add one ounce 
of camphor. When dissolved, it will form a liquid opo- 
deldoc, and is then ready for application, forming a cheap 
and useful remedy. 

When the swelling is on the leg, or any part that will 
receive a bandage, such bandage should be applied, and 
wet with the opodeldoc. 

STIFLE. 
The following recipe for curing this disease, is given 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 223 

by a correspondent of the " Cultivator." He says be has 
sold the recipe for many dollars, and with it cured many 
horses : 

" A handful of sumach bark and a handful of white-oak 
bark, boiled in a gallon of water, down to two quarts ; 
bathe the stifle wiih this lotion twice a day for three days j 
then put on a salve made of the white of an egg and rosin, 
and bathe the same in with a hot shovel two or three 
times, and the horse is cured." 

CURE FOR SPRAINS. 

Take one part spirits of hartshorn, two parts neatsfoot 
oil, and one part of spirits of turpentine. Mix the harts- 
horn aid oil, and then add the turpentine. 

SWINEY. 
Bathe the part affected with saltpetre and water. 

RINGBONE. 

Treatment. — Take gum camphor, one ounce ; spirits 
sal. ammonia, two ounces ; mix these together in a junk 
bottle ; let it stand twenty-four hours, occasionally sha- 
king it together. Then add oil of spike and spirits of tur- 
pentine, of each one ounce. Then shake all well together, 
and it is fit for use. Apply this six successive mornings 
by thoroughly rubbing it on the part, and apply a hot 
shovel to cause the fjame to penetrate more freely, and a 
cure will generally be effected. 

BLACK TONGUE. 

A handful of fine salt, rubbed upon the tongue of a 
horse that has the black-tongue, will cure it in, at the 
most, two applications. 

10* 



226 

REMEDY FOR FILM IN THE EYE OF A BEAST. 

A correspondent of the " Yankee Farmer," suggests what 
he considers a new remedy for a film, produced by a 
blow, or other accidental causes of similar nature, viz : 
spitting tobacco juice into the eye of the animal. He 
remarks that he has seen it tried only twice, and each 
time with entire success ; and with very sensible caution 
concludes, by saying, "the remedy requires to be more 
fully established." We can assure our cautious friend, 
that the remedy has been fully established down South 
for years. The memories of our oldest tobacco-chewers, 
reach not the antiquity of its discovery. We have often 
seen tobacco juice spit in a horse's eye when weeping or 
looking weak, and entire relief afforded. 

THE POLL EVIL. 

The poll-evil is generally the result of a bruise on the 
top of the horse's head, which produces a mass of corrupt 
flesh, that keeps continually increasing for months. For 
a number of months we have known horses to be afflicted 
with it before dying. They lose their appetite, become 
excessively weak, and pine away, and die under its af- 
fliction. 

Treatment. — Cut open the pipe always found in the 
sore, and put in a piece of saleratus. Two or three ap- 
plications will cure. 

The " Southern Planter" says, that an old gentleman of 
the highest respectability, called at the office a few days 
since, to say that he had an unfailing remedy in the little 
evergreen, commonly called the ground ivy. The leaf 
is gathered and dried before the fire until it can be pound- 
ed, when a table-spoonful is mixed with an equal quantity 
of slacked lime, and the swelling having been laid open 
to the bone, the mixture is laid on the wound and kept in 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 227 

its place by a bandage. Mr. Terrill says he has used it 
himself, and that he has known it frequently used by 
others, and that in no instance has the first application 
failed to effect a cure. 



SCRATCHES. 

Wash the legs with warm strong soap suds, and then 
with beef brine. Two applications will cure the wofst 
case. 

ERRORS IN THE TREATMENT OF HORSES. 

When a horse shyes, or shears, at some unaccustomed 
object, and which all young horses will do, never speak 
sharply, or worse than that, strike him, if you would avoid 
his starting the next time he sees the same or any similar 
object. Almost any horse may be brought to a confirmed 
habit of shying by such treatment. What should be done, 
then ? Check him to a walk ; give him time to see the 
object, and he will soon take little or no notice of it. 

If a horse stumbles or trips, it is a common practice to 
strike him for that. This will not mend his habits of trip- 
ping and stumbling, but will add to them, if he has spirit, 
that of springing forward with dangerous quickness when- 
ever it occurs; as he will expect the lash to follow, as a 
matter of course. The remedy, if it can be called one, is 
to keep an eye upon the road, and where from stones or 
unevenness the falling is apprehended, tighten the reins 
and enliven the horse, but never strike him after the ac- 
cident. 

As you would save the strength and wind of your horse, 
drive slow up hill, and as you would save his limbs, and 
your own, drive slowly down hill. 

Never wash off your horse with cold water when he is 



223 

hot, or let him drink it freely in that state. If the water 
is quite warm, it will not hurt him. 

Do not permit the smith, when he shoes your horse, to 
cut out any portion of the soft part, or what is called the 
frog of the foot — this is apt to gradually draw in the quar- 
ters of the hoof and cripple the animal — and is recom- 
mended only by the smooth appearance which it gives to 
the bottom of the foot, which is more apt to catch a round 
stone in the shoe than otherwise. 

Do not feed with grain, especially corn, when a horse 
is warm, or very much fatigued ; if you do, you may 
founder and ruin him. 

If you want your horse to last, and your carriage also, 
drive slowly. 

Do not keep a horse too fat, or too lean, as either dis- 
qualify him for hard labor. 

The more kindness and good temper is extended to a 
horse, the better will he behave in return. Bad temper 
and bad habits come gradually from bad usage. 

DOCKING HORSES. 

A handsome flov/ing mane and tail constitute the most 
graceful and useful appendages to this noble aninrial, and 
are essential both to his strength and comfort. None but 
a narrow-minded, ignorant man, would have in the first 
place ventured on such a violation of vested rights ; and 
none but blockheads or jockeys, destitute of the better hu- 
man feelings, could have perpetrated or tolerated the in- 
novation. 

It is impossible that a docked horse should be as vigor- 
ous and strong as he would have been, had this operation 
never been performed. A division of the strong tendons 
and muscles that have their termination in the tail, must 
of necessity inflict an irreparable injury. A few years 



1 



229 

since, an English gentleman had a fine hunting horse, 
that would carry his rider over a five-barred gate with 
ease ; but the tail was not in fashion, it was not carried 
to suit him, and he had him nicked ; the result was, that 
when he got well, he could scarcely carry him over two 
bars. " Thus," said he " I spoiled a good horse, and no 
wonder ; for the operation weakened his loins, a result 
that might have been reasonably expected from the sever- 
ing of two such muscles." 

Race horses, we believe, are never docked or nicked. 
Their muscular powers are all wanted, and that too, where 
nature has placed them. The hair of the tails is cropped, 
as any one may see in the fine prints that accompany the 
English sporting journals ; but the man who should un- 
dertake by the use of the knife, and the division of tendons, 
to improve nature, would justly be considered insane. The 
same argument that prevents the mutilation of the race 
horse, should prevent that of the carriage or farm horse. 
The trifling inconvenience the tail occasions when in the 
harness, should be tolerated for the sake of the greater 
beauty of the animal. 

PURGING HORSES. 

C. W. Gooch, of Virginia, writinf? to the editor of the 
Southern Planter, says : " The ordinary means of pur- 
ging a sick horse are so slow in operating, that, in many* 
cases, they do no good. I send you a very simple recipe, 
with which some of your readers may not be acquainted, 
which I have never known to fail, and regard as the best 
and simplest. I saw it many years ago in the American 
Farmer, and have tested it ; 

" Take a piece of chalk about the size of a walnut, 
pound it in a mortar, or wrap a rag around it and reduce 
it to powder with a hammer, or anything else ; put the 



230 THE farmer's and 

powder into a quart bottle ; pour common vinegar into 
the bottle, until the effervescence prevents your pouring 
in more, and (having the horse ready,) drench him with 
it. But little vinegar can be got into the bottle the first 
time, so that you will have to pour more into it and drench 
a second time. Ordinarily, a pint will do. If it does not 
operate in five or ten minutes, persevere in the dose, and 
in a very short time the animal will be well again." 



MEDICAL DEPARTMENT 



ooMPRisura 



DISEASES, ACCIDENTS, NURSING, 



MEDICINES. 

VAEIOUS HINTS AS TO THE PRESERVATION OF HEALTH. 



ETC. ETC ETC. 



CHAPTER VII. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



FLUIDS. 

One gallon measure contains 8 pints. 

One pint 16 ounces. 

One ounce 8 drachms* 

One drachm , 60 minims. 

DRY SUBSTANCIS. 

One pound contains 12 ounces. 

One ounce 8 drachms. 

One drachm 60 grains. 

One scruple 20 grains. 

SCALE OF MEDICAL DOSES. 

If a grown person, may take one drachm. 

A person from seven to fourteen half a drachm. 

From four to seven one-third of a drachm. 

Four years one-fourth of a drachm. 

Generally speaking, twenty grains of powder fill a tea-spoon. B» 
careful, however, on this point. 

The suggestions in this department of our work, are in 
no way designed to take the place of the medical man. 
Should any of our readers have occasion for medical help, 
let them at once employ a jw(Z?cioM5 and careful physician. 
No one gains anything by doctoring himself, if it be pos- 
sible to procure the services of a regular practitioner. But 
it very often nappens to the resident of a new country, 
that he must be his own doctor ; and it seems to us to be 



234 THE Parmer's and 

necessary to give a few pages of plain, practical advice, 
on the more common diseases to which he may be liable 
We will begin with 

FEVERS. 

INTERMITTENT, OR FEVER AND AGUE. 

Symptoms. — These are well known, and need not be 
described. 

Treatment. — The bowels should be cleansed in the 
first place. An emetic is perhaps the readiest mode of 
doing it. The following are each good. 

EMETIC. 

Ipecacuanha, four ounces. 
Lobelia, four ounces. 
Blood-root, two ounces. 

Pulverized ; and a tea-spoonful given in warm tea, 
every half hour till it operates. 

ANOTHER. 

Ipecacuanha, fifteen or twenty grains. 
Dissolve in warm water ; give a table -spoonful every 
ten minutes till it operates. 

ANOTHER. 

Tartar emetic ; five or six grains. 

Dissolve in six table-spoonfuls of warm water. Take 
a table-spoonful every ten minutes till it operates. 

Give warm boneset tea, or warm water to hasten the 
operation. 

If the patient object to an emetic, give a purge. Calo. 



THE emigrant's HAXD-BOOK. 235 

mel and jalap, ten grains of each, are good, followed by 
a mild dose of castor oil or salts. As soon as the fever 
goes off, and the skin gets to be a little moist, take two 
grains of quinine evei-y two hours, until you have taken 
five doses. 

It would be well to mix with the first dose or two of 
quinine, a tea-spoonful of salts, with warm water. 

This treatment will generally cure a mild case of this 
disease. 

In more severe cases, it may be necessary to continue 
the use of quinine : when the fever is off, taking care to 
keep the stomach clean and the bowels open. 

There is a most admirable medicine sold in most of the 
Western cities, which we can conscientiously recommend 
for fever and ague, and other bilious diseases. It is the 
'■^Indian Cholagogue,'^ which is made by Dr. Osgood, of 
New-York, who has made the bilious disorders of the 
West his special study. We are no friend to those medi- 
cines usually called ^^ patent j^^ but we have had ample 
opportunity of knowing the invaluable efTects of the Cho- 
lagogue in bilious cases. 

SIMPLE FEVER. 

Symptoms. — Sudden chills and heats ; dry skin ; eyes 
red and uneasy ; tongue white ; urine high colored, etc. 

Treatment. — Bleed freely. If the head is hot and 
painful, apply cloths dipped in vinegar and water, or iced 
water. Give a smart purge of calomel and jalap, ten 
grains of each to a strong adult, less in proportion if the 
patient be weak. If the body be very hot, sponge it all 
over with vinegar and water. After the bowels are 
emptied, give live or six grains of Dover's powder. Keep 
the patient cool and quiet, and give cooling drinks, to 
make which see Nurse's Department. 



236 

BILIOUS FEVER. 

Symptoms. — Low spirits ; yearning ; uneasiness ; de- 
praved appetite ; had dreams ; alternate chill-s and heats ; 
puLse full ; bowels costive ; skin yellowish and harsh ; 
the tongue is first white, and then brown and furred ; pain 
in the head, back and legs ; the urine high colored. 

Treatment. — Bleed freely if the fever is high. Give 
an emetic, (see page 234.) When this has operated 
freely, give a dose of calomel and jalap, from ten to fif- 
teen grains of calomel to an adult. 

If the heat continue very great, sponge the body with 
cold water and vinegar. The bowels must be kept loose 
during the whole of the disease. 

It is very important to get the skin in a moist state. To 
bring this about, ipecacuanha, in doses of one or two grains, 
may be given ; or, tartar emetic, made very weak in 
water, given in small quantities at short intervals. 

If all these things do not cure, it may be necessary to 
salivate" the patient. To do this, give one or two grains 
of calomel in syrup, every two hours, till a slight sore- 
ness, or copper taste, is felt in the mouth. 

Salivation is a last resort, however, and should hardly 
be undertaken without the advice of a medical man. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 

Symptoms. — Great pain in the head ; high fever ; pulse 
high ; eyes red, and unable to bear the light ; restless, 
unquiet sleep ; sometimes delirium ; tongue red, changing 
to a dark-brown or yellow ; sometimes the feet are cold ; 
breathing sometimes difficult. 

Treatment. — Bleed freely; bathe the feet in warm 
water, with a little pearlash or common ashes in it; apply 
cloths dipped in vinegar and water to the head frequent* 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 837 

ly ; a mustard poultice to the back of the neck is useful 
in bad cases. Purge freely with epsom salts. Keep the 
patient in a dark room, cool and quiet as possible. If 
this does not answer, the patient should be blistered, either 
on the head or between the shoulders. If the former, the 
head should be shaved. Mustard may be applied to the 
feet every night. 

COMMON HEADACHE. 

A foul stomach is generally the cause of this ; and may 
be relieved by an emetic, followed by a moderate dose of 
calomel and jalap, and lighter diet for a few days. 

BLEEDING AT THE NOSE. 

Apply cold water or ice to the back of the neck, the 
head, and face. Put the feet in warm water, and give 
some warm herb tea to cause perspiration. Snuff up a 
little fine dry salt, if the above does not cure. 

SCARLET FEVER. 

This disease prevails much in many portions of the 
United States, and should be guarded against. 

Symptoms. — Cold chills, succeeded by heat and thirst ; 
headache ; pulse quicker than usual ; breathing quick and 
unnatural. In two days, or thereabouts, a prickling sen- 
sation is felt, and the skin is covered with a red eruption, 
which shortly runs together. This will usually be seen 
first upon the face, breast and arms. In a few days, if 
the patient does well, the eruption disappears. 

The scarlet fever and measles have many symptoms 
alike. The eruption in the measles is in distinct spots, 
and is two days later in its appearance than in scarlet 
fever. 

Treatment. — Give an emetic as soon as possible ; then 



238 THE farmer's and 

give a dose ot salts. Sponge the body with tepid water* 
Give cooling d'rinks, and keep the patient quiet. Give 
catnip tea frequently? and bathe the feet. 

If the throat is sore, gargle with a little alum water, or 
sage and honey. A gargle made of cayenne pepper is one 
of the very best applications. Do not fail to try it. Mus- 
tard plasters may be applied to the feet. 

Sometimes the disease runs into a malignant form. It 
is difficult to give instructions as to the course best to pur- 
sue under these circumstances; a physician should be 
got, if practicable. The following is recommended, on 
very high authority, in advanced stages of the putrid sore 
throat, which accompanies the malignant form of the dis- 
ease. If you cannot get a physician, try it by all means. 

Two table-spoonsful of cayenne (or red) pepper. 

One tea-spoonful of salt. 

Half a pint of vinegar. 

Half a pint of boiling water. 

When cool, strain it, and give two table-spoonsful 
every half hour. We have great confidence in this 
remedy. If there be difficulty in passing the water, give 
a few drops of spirits of nitre occasionally, or spearmint 
tea. 

MEASLES. 

This disease is usually known to mothers, but we will 
give a few of the 

Symptoms. — Dullness and sleepiness ; dry cough ; 
eyes red ; great thirst, and afterward a severe cold. On 
the fourth day small red spots appear on the face, and 
then on other parts of the body;, the face liable to be; 
swollen ; the tongue furred and of a whitish color. 

Treatment. — Give a dose or two of castor oil or salts ; 
in a few hours give a gentle emetic. Bathe the feet in 



I 



239 

warm water with ashes in it. After the bowels have been 
opened and the emetic taken, give saffron, and Virginia 
snake-root, made into a weak tea ; two parts of the former 
and one of the latter. Keep the bowels open ; and keep the 
patient cool and quiet, with low diet. 

WORMS. 

Symptoms. — Paleness ; bad breath ; itching at the nose ; 
constant hunger ; slow fever ; wasting away of the flesh ; 
cheeks flushed at times, etc. 

Treatment. — Take 

Carolina pink-root, half an ounce. 

Senna, half an ounce. 

Manna, half an ounce. 

Boiling water, one pint ; sweeten, and add a little milk ; 
give a gill three times a day. 

Powdered charcoal, in new milk, is considered a cure 
in simple cases. 

Another mode of treatment is as follows : Give three 
or four grains of calomel ; the next day, give the same 
quantity of powdered aloes. Continue this treatment for 
a week. 

SUMMER COMPLAINT IN CHILDREN ; OR LOOSENESS 
OF THE BOWELS. 

Treatment.-— 
Rhubarb, \ 

Saleratus, \, equal parts, say, twenty grains. 
Spearmint, ) 

Mix in half a pint of warm water, sweeten, and give a 
table-spoonful every two hours till the disease abates. 
Powdered charcoal and magnesia is good. 



240 THE farmer's and 



DIARRHEA IN ADULTS. 



Treatment. — Give an emetic ; then a dose of castor 
oil, with forty drops of laudanum in it. See that the 
bowels are kept open by castor oil every day if necessary. 
If this does not restore the bowels to a healthy state, give 
the following : 

Powdered rhubarb, ten grains 

Do. chalk, one scruple. 

Do. opium, one scruple. 

Divide into four powders, and take one night and 
morning. 

Blackberry syrup is a most excellent medicine in this 
complaint, and may be had when other remedies cannot. 
It is made thus : 

The bark of the root, two pounds ; boil it four hours, 
and simmer down to two quarts ; then add three or four 
pounds of loaf-sugar and half a pint of brandy. A table- 
spoonful morning, noon, and night. 

MUMPS. 

Symptoms. — A lump on the throat, immediately under 
the jaws, sometimes on one side, sometimes on both ; at- 
tended with more or less fever; the cheeks and face usu- 
ally swell. 

Treatment. — If the bowels are confined, open them by 
castor oil, salts, or any mild purge ; drink freely of warm 
catnip, or balm tea ; avoid the possibility of taking cold ; 
on this point you cannot be too particular. If there should 
be a swelling in the breast, or in any other place, apply 
poultices of cold bread and milk. Try to get up a gentle 
sweat. Let the diet be low, and drink cooling beverages. 
Bathing the feet is useful. 



THE emigrant's hani>-book. 241 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 

Symptoms. — Sharp pain in the bowels, especially near 
the navel ; belly exceedingly sore, tight and drumlike ; 
frequently there is vomiting of a dark, bilious matter ; 
the urine high-colored ; pulse small and quick ; low spir- 
its ; belching up wind, etc., etc. 

Treatment. — Bleed freely ; bathe the feet and belly 
in weak warm ley of ashes ; give a table-spoonful of 
sweet oil every two hours. Should the bowels not move 
freely, give an injection of equal parts of new milk and 
mucilage of slippery-elm, adding thereto a gill or two of 
molasses and sweet oil, and thirty drops of laudanum. 

When the disease abates, give a clyster of fifty drops of 
laudanum in flaxseed or slippery-elm tea, morning and 
night. Keep the patient cool and quiet, on a low (Jiet. 

PLEURISY. 

Symptoms. — For a few hours preceding the attack, 
usual symptoms of simple fever are felt, such as chilli- 
ness, uneasiness, flushes of heat, thirst, and the like. A 
smart, sharp pain, like pricking, is felt in the side, par- 
ticularly when drawing in the breath. There is a diffi. 
culty in lying on the sore side. Sometimes there is a bad 
cough, and tough phlegm raised. The pulse is very 
strong and wiry. 

Treatment. — Bleed freely. Apply a blister to the af- 
fected side. Bathe the feet in hot water mixed with ashes. 
Next, give a large dose of salts. If the bowels are con- 
fined at any time during the disease, give a clyster of 
starch in warm water ; or slippery-elm tea, or any com- 
mon clyster. It is all important to have the patient sweat. 
If this is not brought about by the above course, give a tea- 
spoonful of sweet spirits of nitre and antimonial wine every 
two hours. 

11 



242 THE farmer's and 

The patient must be kept on the lowest diet possible. 
This is a dangerous disease, and the assistance of a medi. 
cal man should be speedily called. 

COLIC. 

The common wind colic may usually be relieved by a 
free use of mint tea, or any warming herb drink. Rub- 
bing the belly with hot flannels will do good. After the 
pain lias gone take a brisk purge. 

BILIOUS COLIC. 

Is not so easily cured. The following are its 

Symptoms. — Vomiting a yellowish matter ; pain near 
the navel ; great pain all over the belly ; feverish symp- 
toms ; thirst ; costiveness. 

Treatment. — The first thing to be done is to quiet the 
vomiting ; for this purpose laudanum and saleratus, a tea- 
spoonful each, may be given in half a pint of warm tea 
— a table-spoonful every half hour. A strong purge, say 
calomel and jalap, should be given as soon as the stomach 
is quiet. If this does not operate, resort must be had to 
clysters, made of common gruel or flaxseed tea, with a 
tea-spoonful of laudanum added. 

During the severe stages of the disease, the stomach 
and bowels should be bathed in warm vinegar and water, 
with an infusion of hops, if they can be got. Drink free- 
ly of mint tea. This is a dangerous disease, and a medi- 
cal man should be sent for if possible. 

JAUNDICE. 

Symptoms. — The whites of the eyes become yellow, 
and so does the skin. The urine is yellow and stains a 
white cloth. The skin is dry, and the appetite fails. 
The disease is too well known, to need further description. 



I 



THE EMIGRANT S HANB-BOCJS;'^, 243 

Treatment. — Give an emetic. Pills made of castile 
soap, two in the morning and two at night for some time, 
are a good medicine. Drink freely of a decoction of 
aandelion root, and barberry root bark. Soot tea is good. 

CROUP. 

Symptoms. — The first sign is difficulty of breathing 
when asleep, with cough. This increases violently, un- 
til the child is almost convulsed. The face becomes 
flushed, and a peculiar sound is noticed when the child 
coughs. 

Treatment. — Whatever is done must he done instantly. 
If taken in season the disease is perfectly curable. The 
very first thing is to give an emetic. On this the whole 
cure depends. See that the child is made to vomit thorough- 
ly. Antimonial wine, tartar emetic, or hive syrup will be 
good to produce this. 

As soon as the child is relieved of the above symptoms, 
danger is at end ; but the bowels should be madei4^. move 
freely, and great care taken of the patient. 

WHOOPING COUGH. 

Symptoms. — It appears at first like a common cold, 
which increases, attended with thirst, hoarseness, and 
quickened pulse. In a few days that singular sound call- 
ed ""Whooping" is heard, when the child draws a long 
breath. Immediately following the whoop, the child 
coughs. 

Treatment. — Give an emetic at once. Keep the bow- 
els open during the disease by castor oil, salts, or other 
simple medicines. Bathe the feet every night in hot 
water. It may be necessary to repeat the emetic, occa- 
sionally, if the cough continues severe. A little pare- 
goric may be given at night to allay the cough. 



244 THE FAKiAIEll's AND 

CRAMP IN THE STOMACH. 

Treatment. — Rub the stomach with flannel till it 
smartj;. Take half a tea-spoonful of red pepper in warm 
water. Drink freely of herb tea, mint, etc. Bathe the 
feet in hot water, and apply heated bricks, or bottles of 
hot water to the stomach. 

SALT RHEUM. 

Treatment.— Make an ointment of narrow dock roots, 
scabious and sassafras, equal parts. Boil these down 
strong, and add a pound of lard. Apply the ointment 
three times a day. Purify the blood with drink made of 
roots. Bristol's sarsaparilla is a capital medicine. 

ITCH. 

Treatment. — Flour of sulphur, two parts ; cream of tar- 
tar, one part ; mix in molasses, and give an adult a te?.- 
spoonful night and morning. Children half the. quantity. 
Take sulphur, half an ounce ; lard, two ounces ; mix them 
thoroughly together, and rub it over the body twice a day. 

RING WORM. 

Treatment. — Tar, one ounce ; mutton tallow, one 
ounce; ground pepper, half an ounce. 

Simmer these together, and when nearly cold, stir in 
powdered sulphur to form an ointment. Wash the parts 
three times a day with castile soap-suds, and apply the 
ointment. 

DIFFICULTY OF URINE. 

Symptoms. — A frequent desire to make water, attended 
with pain, heat, and difficulty in doing so ; a fulness in 
the bladder. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 2^5 

Treatment. — If it arise from simple irritation by blis- 
ters, etc., plentiful drauglits of warm liquids, as gum 
arable or barley water, will be sufficient to remove it. If 
from any other cause, a bladder half filled with warm 
water, or cloths wrung out of a warm decoction of herbs, 
should be kept constantly applied over the parts, and mild 
clysters of thin starch be frequently injected. 

INFLAMMATORY RHEUMATISM. 

Symptoms. — Pain, swelling, and inflammation in some 
one (or several) of the larger joints. The pain shifting 
from one part to another, all the symptoms of fever, pulse 
full and hard, tongue white, bowels costive, and urine 
high colored. 

Treatment. — Bleed the patient freely, or until the 
pulse is sensibly atTected by it, and purge him with salts 
and senna. The Dover's powder should be taken to pro- 
cure sweating, and a very low diet be strictly observed. 

If the pain continue severe, and the blood already drawn 
shows a yellow or buffy coat, bleed again. The in- 
flammation must be reduced, and we are not to lay 
aside the lancet till that is done. In severe cases it has 
been found necessary to bleed twice a day, for four or five 
days in succession. Active purging with salts and senna 
must not be neglected. When the disease is overcome, 
if in consequence of the bleeding, etc., the patient is left 
very low and weak, wrap him up in blankets, give him 
warm, nourishing food, wine, etc. etc. 

CHRONIC RHEUMATISM. 

Symptoms. — A chronic rheumatism is nothing more 
than one of long standing. It is unaccompanied by fever, 
and makes its attacks on every change of weather, on 
getting wet, etc. etc. It is frequently caused by infliam* 



246 THE FARMER^S AND 



* 



matory rheumatism, and sometimes seems to exist as a 
primary affection. 

, Treatment. — T^re has been found no one plan of 
treatment in this species of the disease, so effectual as the 
following : Purge with senna and salts, every other day, 
rub the parts well with volatile liniment, and use Cayenne 
pepper and mustard at dinner, in large quantities, and on 
going to bed thirty drops of laudanum, with a tea-spoonful 
of the tincture of guaiacum. It is to be recollected, that 
this is applicable only to chronic cases; if there is fever, 
etc., it will do much damage. Should there be any cause 
to suspect that a venereal taint is connected with it, have 
recourse to the decoction of guaiacum and sarsaparilla. 
A large blister frequently relieves the whole of the symp- 
toms in the course of a night. The best safeguard against 
the complaint, is the use of flannel next the skin, winter 
and summer. 

RUPTURES. 

Ruptures are tumors caused by the protrusion of a part 
of the bowels through certain natural openings. They 
are divided into reducible, irreducible, and strangulated. 
They mostly occur in men in the groin and bag. 

Causes. — Straining in any way, as at stool, vomiting, 
lifting heavy weights, violent exercise, as jumping, run- 
niijig, etc., a natural weakness of the parts. 

REDUCIBLE RUPTURES. 

Symptoms. — A small swelling, free from pain, and 
generally soft, the color of the skin over it remaining 
unaltered. While standing up, the swellings increases, on 
lying down, ^ decreases, the patient being able to return 
the parts himself, while in that position. The swelling is 
also increased by coughing, sneezing, or straining as if 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 24t 

at stool. If he is flatulent, a rumbling sensation may be 
felt in it. 

Treatment. — The patient should place himself on his 
back, with his head and shoulders a little elevated, draw- 
up his knees to his belly, and (if in this position the parts 
do not return of themselves,) endeavor to push or knead 
them up into the belly, through the opening at which they 
come out, and which, if the tumor be in the groin or bag, 
is an oval ring or slit in the groin, at the precise spot 
where the swelling first appeared. When this is effected, 
he should remain quiet till a truss can be procured, the 
spring of which must be passed round his body, the pad 
be applied directly over the spot just mentioned, and held 
there with one hand, while the other passes the strap into 
the buckle and draws it sufficiently tight. Having done 
this, he should get up and walk about. If the swelling 
no longer appears, the truss is properly applied ; if other- 
wise, take it off, return the parts as before, and apply it 
again ; when, if on rising, walking about, slightly cough- 
ing, etc., the parts are .found to be well kept up, he may ^ 
resume his ordinary business. The truss should be worn 
night and day, as long as he lives. 

IRREDUCIBLE RUPTURES. 

Symptoms. — A rupture in which there is no pain, yet 
that cannot be returned into the belly, caused by an in- 
creased bulk of the parts, or their having formed adhe- 
sions, or grown fast to adjoining parts. 

Treatment. — A rupture thus situated must be left to 
itself. The patient should be extremely cautious in his 
diet, and in avoiding costiveness, by the use of clysters, 
or if necessary, laxative medicines. He should also be 
very careful to protect the tumor from bk)ws, always re- 
collecting that .it is in danger of strangulation. 



248 THE FARMER S AND 

PILES. 

SvMPTOMS. — A pain in the fundament when going to 
stool ; on examination small tumors are perceived to pro- 
ject beyond its verge. They are of two kinds, the blind 
and bleeding. They may also be internal and external. 

BLIND PILES. 

Treatment. — A diet of rye mush and milk, strictly ad- 
hered to for a length of time, will very frequently cure 
the disease. If they project, are swelled, and painful, 
apply twenty or thirty leeches to them, and cold applica- 
tions. The common gall ointment is a very soothing 
application. Balsam copavia, in doses sufficiently large 
to purge freely, is also highly recommended. A radical 
cure, however, is only to be sought for in the knife or lig. 
ature, for which apply to a surgeon. If the pain is very 
great, laudanum may be taken to ease it. 

BLEEDING PILES. 

.*» 

Treatment. — If the bleeding is considerable, inject a 
solution of alum or a decoction of oak bark. This evac- 
uation is sometimes salutary, and it often requires much 
judgment to know if it should be stopped or not. 

The following remedy is taken from that most excellent 
work " The Family Nurse/^ by the accomplished Mrs. 
Childs : 

An ounce of low mallows hoiled in a pint of new milk till 
reduced to three gills ; strain it, and add one gill of West 
India molasses. To be used about bloodwarm, injected 
daily. 

TO DIMINISH INORDINATE INFLAMMATION. 

Mix one drachm extract of lead, or solution of sugar of 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 249 

lead in water, with four ounces of alcohol, and six ounces 
of water. Make a lotion, which is to be applied to those 
surfaces where inflammation is very great. 

Another method. — Dissolve two drachms of white vitrioi 
in a pint of distilled water. To be applied as above. 

MARSH-MALLOW FOMENTATION FOR THE SAME. 

Boil together for a quarter of an hour, an ounce of 
dried marsh-mallow root, with half an ounce of chamo- 
mile flowers, in a pint of water-; strain through a cloth. 
The fomenting flannels should be sprinkled with spirits, 
just before they are applied to the inflamed part. 

FOMENTATION OF POPPIES. 

Bruise four ounces of dried poppy heads, and then boil 
them in six pints of water, until a quart only remains 
after straining. This fomentation is to be applied to in- 
flamed parts, where there is much pain, but which are 
required to suppurate. 

REFRIGERANT LOTION. 

Mix together equal parts of acetated water of ammonia 
and tincture of camphor; which apply to the inflamed 
joint or other part. 

Another. — Dissolve an ounce of muriate of ammonia in 
four ounces of common vinegar, and add ten ounces of 
water, to be applied with or without a cloth to the inflamed 
surfaces. 

Another. — Mix together two ounces of rectified spirits, 
and five ounces of acetated water of ammonia. 
11* 



250 THE farmer's and 



SEDATIVE LOTION. 



Dissolve half a drachm of sugar of lead in four ounces 
of vinegar, and then add an ounce of common spirits with 
a pint of water. Linen cloths dipped in this lotion are to 
be applied to inflamed parts, etc. 

COLD AND SEDATIVE POULTICE. 

Take of goulard water, (or solution of sugar of lead,) a 
drachm and a half; rectified spirits, two ounces; water, 
a pint. These are to be mixed with a sufficient quantity 
of the crumb of a new loaf, so as to form a poultice, to 
be applied at night to the inflamed parts. 

Another. — Mix with a crumb of bread as above, one 
drachm of goulard water (or solution of sugar of lead) 
and a pint of common water that has been boiled. 

POULTICE TO HASTEN SUPPURATION. 

Make two parts of finely-powdered bran, and one part 
of linseed meal, into a poultice, with boiling water. A 
little oil should be spread over the surface just before ii 
is applied. 

Another. — Take a crumb of bread and linseed meal, 
equal parts. Make them into a poultice with boiling milk. 

LINSEED POULTICE. 

Stir linseed flour into boiling water, in sufficient quan. 
lily to form a poultice of proper consistency, and before 
application, smear the surface with a little olive or lin- 
seed oil. If irritation, with great pain and hardness should 
prevail, it will be necessary to substitute a decoction of 



I 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 251 

poppy heads for the common water. This poultice is in 
general use in all the hospitals. 

EMBROCATION FOR SPRAINS. 

Shake in a phial, until they become white like milk, 
ten drachms of olive oil, with two drachms of spirits of 
hartshorn ; then add four drachms of oil of turpentine. 
When properly mixed, they may be directly used as an 
embrocation for sprains and bruises. 

Where weakness remains in consequence of a sprain, 
cold water ought to be pumped on it every morning ; and 
a long calico roller should be bound firmly (but not too 
tight,) round it immediately after. By these means, 
strength will soon be restored. 

Another.— Digest fifteen ounces of white hard soap, 
scraped with a knife, in four pints of alcohol, and one pint 
of hartshorn, previously mixed in a large bottle. When 
dissolved, add five ounces of camphor. When this last is 
entirely dissolved, the embrocation is fit for use. 

This elegant and powerful stimulant was selected from 
the Pharmacopoeia of the Middlesex Hospital, for private 
use. The above quantities of the ingredients are to be 
reduced in proportion to each other, according to the 
quantity likely to be used in a family. If one-third only 
is required, use five ounces of soap, one of camphor, six- 
teen of spirits of wine, and four of water of ammonia. 

APPLICATION OF LEECHES. 

In the applying of leeches to the human body, success 
is rendered more certain by previously drying them, of 
allowing them to creep over a dry cloth. To attract 
them, the part should be moistened with cream, sugar, or 
blood, and if this should be insufficient, the leech may be 



252 THE farmer's and 

cooled by touching it with a cloth dipped in cold water. 
The escape of* leeches from the part is to be prevented by 
covering them with a wineglass or tumbler 

BURNS AND SCALDS. 

Take of linseed or olive oil, lime-water, each equal 
parts, or three ounces, by measure ; mix, by shaking 
them together. This liniment is extremely useful in 
cases of scalds or burns, being singularly efficacious in 
preventing, if applied in time, the inflammation subse- 
quent to these, or even in removing it after it has come on. 

Another. — Lime-water with linseed oil has often been 
used as a liniment, in the proportion of an ounce and a 
half to the latter, to three ounces of the former. This is 
a very excellent application. 

Another. — Many medical men are partial to the use of 
lime-water and common spirits immediately after the ac- 
cident, in proportion of three ounces of the latter to six 
ounces of the former. This mixture should be applied 
cold, and the parts kept constantly covered with a fine linen 
cloth dipped in it. 

Another. — Raw potatoes, scraped or grated, may be 
advantageously applied to recent burns and scalds, if 
nothing better can conveniently be had. But, perhaps, 
the best application, immediately after the accident, is 
common spirits, with a solution of sugar of lead, in the 
proportion of[ twelve ounces of the latter, to four ounces 

of the former. 

% 

Another. — Apply oatmeal and cold water to the part 
affected, immediately after the accident ; keep it on as a 



THE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 253 

poultice all night ; next morning, if not serious, it will be 
quite well, neither blister nor wounds appearing. 

In all cases of burns and scalds, it is necessary to ob- 
serve, that if fever should ensue, gently laxative medi- 
cines pught to be administered. The best are castor oil 
and epsom salts. 

If the injury arising from the scald or burn be very 
severe, suppuration should be promoted by fomentations 
and emollient poultices. The 'deformity or constriction 
of muscles and tendons, which arises from burns and 
scalds, is to be obviated as much as possible by bandage 
and position. Particular attention must be paid to posi- 
tions where joints are concerned, and in burns in the 
neck. In all, the limbs should be as much as possible 
in their natural situation of rest ; but the head, in par- 
ticular, should be kept in a proper position. 

EXTENSIVE BURNS AND SCALDS. 

In several bad cases of burns and scalds, the topical 
application of well-carded cotton wool has succeeded in 
effecting a cure in a few days. For this discovery we 
are indebted to chance. The child of a negro in the 
West Indies, in consequence of falling into boiling \yater, 
was most dreadfully scalded ; the mother, being ignorant 
of any mode of treatment, immediately laid the child on 
the cotton wool she had been carding, and covered it over 
with ii. The cotton wool adhered closely to the injured 
parts, and being caked by the discharge, completely de- 
fended the surface from the action of the atmosphere. In 
the course of a few days the whole peeled off with the 
injured skin, leaving a healthy surface covered with a 
new cuticle. The same treatment has been adopted in 
Scotland, and elsewhere, in several bad cases of burns 
and scalds, with singular happy results. When the dis- 



254 THE farmer's and 

• charge exudes through the first layer, more cotton must be 
added to absorb it. In order that it may adhere to the in- 
jured part, the surface should be moistened with oil. 

POIJLTICE FOR ULCERS. 

Boil any quantity of fresh carrots until they are suffi- 
ciently soft to be beaten up into a smooth pulp. This is 
equally beneficial to the cure of cancerous, as well as 
scorbutic ulcers. The latter are known byj^i^own color, 
the discharge being thin and corroding, whi^the fungous 
excrescences which shoot out, bleed on the slightest touch. 
The ulcer is surrounded by a livid ring, in which small 
spots are frequently observed. The former are known 
by their very irregular surface, from several parts of 
which blood exudes. They are attended by shooting 
painS; and have a fetid discharge. 

Another. — Boil any quantity of the bottom leaves of 
the common meadow sorrel, until they are sufficiently 
soft ; then beat them into a smooth pulp, which is to be 
applied as a poultice to ulcers of the above-mentioned 
nature. 

Another. — Poultices of the pulp of apples have been 
successfully employed for these ulcers. They are made 
by mixing two ounces of the pulp of boiled apples with 
the same weight of the crumb of bread. 

LOTION FOR SCORBUTIC ULCERS. 

Mix from one to two drachms of muriate acid (spirit of 
salt) with a pint of water. This lotion is very useful in 
cleansing and stimulating the above-mentioned ulcers. 



Another. — Make a lotion by dissolving half an ounce 



I 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 255 

of vSalt-petre in half a pint of common vinegar, with 
which cleanse the ulcers in question. 

MALT POULTICE. 

Mix as much ground malt with half a pint of yeast as 
will make a poultice of moderate consistence. This poul- 
tice is gently stimulating, and very serviceable in destroy- 
ing the fetid and disagreeable smell which arises from 
foul ulcers and gangrenous wounds. 

Another. — A similar poultice, and for the same pur- 
pose, is prepared by stirring into an infusion of malt, as 
much oatmeal as may be required to make it of a proper 
thickness, and afterward adding about a spoonful of yeast. 

STRONG BEER POULTICE. 

Stir into half a pint of ale, or strong beer-grounds, as 
much oatmeal or linseed meal, as will make a poultice 
of proper thickness. This will prove an excellent stimu- 
lant and antiseptic for foul ulcers. It should be applied 
as warm as the parts will bear, and should be renewed 
every six hours. 

YEAST POULTICE. 

Mix well together one pound of linseed meal, and a 
pint of ale yeast. Expose this to a gentle heat, until a 
certain degree of fermentation takes place. This poultice 
is excellent for stimulating and cleansing foul ulcers. 

CHARCOAL POULTICE. 

To half a pound of the common oatmeal poultice, add 
two ounces of fresh burnt charcoal, finely pounded and 
sifted. Mix the whole well together, and apply it to foul 



256 THE farmer's and 

ulcers and venereal sores ; the fetid smell and unhealtny 
appearance of which it speedily destroys. 

EYE-WATERS. 

Take of extract of lead, ten drops ; rose-water, six 
ounces. Mix, and wash the eyes night and morning. 

Another.— Take of extract of lead, ten drops ; spirits of 
camphor, twenty drops ; rose-water, half a pint. Mix. 
This eye-water is extremely useful in ophthalmia at- 
tended with much inflammation. 

Another. — Take of opium, ten grains ; camphor, six 
grains ; boiling water, twelve ounces ; rub the opium and 
camphor with the boiling water, and strain. This eye- 
water abates the pain and irritation attendant on severe 
cases of inflammation of the eyes. 

Another. — Take of white vitriol, half a drachm ; spirits 
of camphor, one drachm ; warm water, two ounces; rose- 
water, four ounces. Dissolve the vitriol in the warm 
water, and add the spirits of camphor and rose-water. 
This is a useful eye- water in the chronic state of ophthal- 
mia, or what is generally called weakness of the eyes, 
after inflammation. 

COMPOUND COLOCYNTH PILLS. 

Take of pith of colocynth, cut small, six drachms ; aloes, 
one ounce and a half; scammony, one ounce and a half 
cardamon seeds, husked and bruised, one drachm ; castile 
soap, softened with warm water, so as to have a gelati 
nous consistence, three drachms; warm water, one pint 
Digest the colocynth in the water, in a covered vessel 
with ,3, moderate heat, for four days. To the liquor, ex 
pressed and filtered, add the aloes and scammony, sepa 
rately, reduced to powder ; then evaporate the mixture 
to a proper thickness for making pills, having added, to- 



257 

ward the end of the evaporation, the soap-jelly and 
powdered seeds, and mix all the ingredients thoroughly 
together. 

These pills are much used as warm and stomachic 
laxatives ; they are well suited for costiveness, so often 
attendant on people of sedentary lives, and, upon the 
whole, are one of the most useful articles in the materia 
medica. 

ALGETIC PILLS. 

Take of socotrine aloes, powdered, one ounce ; extract 
of gentian, half an ounce ; oil of caraway seeds, two scru- 
ples ; syrup of ginger, as much as is sufficient. Beat them 
together. The dose is about ten grains. 

COMPOUND ALGETIC PILLS. 

Take of hepatic aloes, one ounce ; ginger root, in pow- 
der, one drachm ; soap, half an ounce ; essence of pepper- 
mint, half a drachm. Powder the aloes with the ginger, 
then add the soap and the oil, so as to form an intimate 
mixture. This is an excellent purge for costive habits, 
in the dose of from five to ten grains. 

CASTGR OIL CLYSTER. 

Take of castor oil, two ounces; one egg; mix them 
well, and then add gruel, eight ounces, which will ope- 
rate very mildly, and is efficacious in cases of worms. 

PURGING CLYSTER. 

Take of manna, one ounce ; dissolve in ten ounces, by 
measure, of compound decoction of chamomile ; then add 
of olive oil, one ounce ; sulphate of magnesia, half an 
ounce. Mix, and let it be given directly. 



258 THE farmer's and 

PURGATIVE POWDER, FORMERLY CALLED PICRA. 

Take of socotrine aloes, one pound ; white canella, three 
ounces. Powder them separately, and then mix them. 
The spicy canella acts as a corrigent to the aloes ; but 
the compound is more adapted to be formed into pills than 
to be used in the state of powder. It is a convenient me- 
dicine for costive habits, not subject to the piles. Dose, 
from ten grains to a scruple at bed-time. 



The following recipe was copied from one in the pos- 
session of the late Emperor of France, and was a very fa- 
vorite remedy with Napoleon for difficulty of breathing, 
or oppression of the chest, arising from a collection of 
mucus in the air cells and vessels of the lungs, and in the 
gullet. Considerable benefit has been derived from them 
in many similar cases. Take of ipecacuanha root, in 
powder, thirty grains ; squill root, in powder, gum ammo- 
niac, do. each two scruples ; mucilage of gum arable, suf- 
ficient to form a mass. To be divided into twenty-four 
pills ; two to be taken every night and morning. 

DR. RATCLIFFE's COUGH MIXTURE. 

Mix together four drachms of syrup of squills, four 
drachms of elixir of paregoric, four drachms of syrup of 
poppies. Of this, take a tea-spoonful in a little tea or 
warm water, as occasion requires. 



Take four drachms of paregoric elixir, two drachms of 
sulphuric ether, two drachms of tincture of tolu. Mix, 
and take a tea-spoonful night and morning, or when the 
cough is troublesome, in a little milk- warm water. 



THE EMIGUANt's HAND-BOOK. 259 

SIMPLE REMEDY FOR COUGHS. 

Take of boiling water, half a pint ; black currant jelly, 
a dessert-spoonful ; sweet spirits of nitre, a tea-spoonful. 
Mix the jelly in the water first, till it is quite dissolved, 
and add the nitre last. Take a dessert-spoonful of the 
mixture at night, going to bed, or when the cough is 
troublesome. The mixture should be made and kept in 
a tea-pot, or other covered vessel. 

REMEDY FOR CHRONIC COUGH. 

The following is very serviceable in common obstinate 
coughs, unattended with fever. Take of tincture of tolu, 
three drachms ; elixir of paregoric, half an ounce ; tincture 
of squills, one drachm. Two tea-spoonsful to be taken 
in a tumbler of barley-water going to bed, and when the 
cough is troublesome. 

FOR COUGHS IN AGED PERSONS. 

In the coughs of aged persons, or in cases where there 
are large accumulations of purulent or viscid matter, 
with feeble expectoration, the following mixture will be 
found highly beneficial : Pour gradually two drachms of 
nitric acid, diluted in half a pint of water, on two drachms 
of gum ammoniac, and triturate them in a glass mortar, 
until the gum is dissolved. A table-spoonful to be taken, 
in sweetened water, every two or three hours. 

GARGLE FOR SORE THROAT. 

Take of decoction of bark, seven ounces ; tincture of 
n-yrrh, two drachms ; nitre, three drachms. Make into 
a gargle. This is a sovereign method to disperse a tume- 
fied gland, or common sore throat. By taking on such 
occasions a small lump of purified nitre, putting it into the 



260 THE FARMER S AND 

mouth, and letting it dissolve there, then removing it, and 
applying it again in a few seconds, and swallowing the 
saliva, I have, says Dr. Thornton, for many years pre- 
vented a sore throat from forming. 

FOR PUTRID SORE THROAT. 

Take of decoction of bark, six ounces ; diluted vitriolic 

acid, one drachm ; honey of roses, one ounce. Make 

into a gargle ; to be used, mixed with port wine, fre- 
quently during the day. 

FOR INFLAMMATORY SORE THROAT. 

Take of nitre, two drachms; honey, .four drachms; 
rose-water, six ounces. Mix. To be used frequently. 

Another. — Take of spirits of salts, twenty drops ; honey 
of roses, half an ounce ; water, four ounces. Mix. 

PILLS FOR RHEUMATISM. 

Take of guaiacum (gum resin) powder, an.d soap, equal 
parts, one drachm ; oil of juniper, four drops. Make 
into twenty-eight pills ; take two four times a day. This 
is an admirable remedy. 

OINTMENT FOR THE SAME. 

An ointment of stramonium, made by gently boiling 
six ounces of the recent leaves (bruised) in a pound and 
a half of fresh hogs' lard, till they become crisp, is in high 
repute as a remedy for this disease. The size of a nut- 
meg, Dr. Turner, of Philadelphia, has found to remove 
rheumatic pains, after electricity and powerful liniments, 
with internal remedies, had totally failed ; and Dr. Zol- 
lickoffer says, that he has known the stramonium oint- 



I 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 261 

ment to succeed in cases of rheumatism, after the internal 
exhibition of the tincture of stramonium had no effect. 
For internal use he prefers a tincture of the leaves (made 
in the proportion of an ounce and a half of the dried 
leaves to a pint of proof spirits,) to the extract. 

TONIC FOR DEBILITY IN FEMALES. 

Take of soft extract of bark, two drachms ; Colombo, 
rust of iron, each one drachm ; simple syrup, as much as 
is sufficient. Make into fifty pills ; take two, and gradu- 
ally increase to five, three times a day. 

SORE NIPPLES. 

Chapped or sore nipples are very frequent with those 
who give suck. In this case, the olive oil is a very 
proper application ; or fresh cream spread upon fine 
linen ; or a solution of gum arabic in water. 

It is almost needless to observe, that whatever appli- 
cations be made use of to the nipples, they ought always 
to be washed off before the child is permitted to suck, 

ROOT BEER. 

The following beer is an excellent medicine for diseases 
of the blood : 

Sassafras root. 

Burdock root. 

Wild cherry bark — of the root. 

Root of black alder. 

Spice wood. 

Boil several hours, strain and sweeten with molasses or 
sugar ; add when blood-warm, sufficient yeast to ferment 
it. When it ferments, it is fit to drink. A little ginger 
and hops helps it much. 



ANTI-BILIOUS MEDICINE. 

Jalap, one pound. 
Senna, two do. 
Clored, two ounces. 

A. tea-spoonful is a dose, given in warm water. It is 
a capital medicine. 

NERVOUS PILL. 

Extract of valerian and chamomile, equal parts; 
made into three-grain pills. Take three or four a day. 

COMMON POULTICE. 

Pulverized slippery-elm bark, stirred into hot milk or 
water, till of the right thickness. This is the best pouU 
lice that can he had. 

STRENGTHENING PLASTER. 

Hemlock gum, three parts ; white turpentine, one part; 
dissolve and strain. 

CURE FOR SCROFULA. 

Yellow dock root, two pounds. 
Bark of bitter-sweet root, two pounds. 
Boil thoroughly, and sweeten. Give a wine-glassful be- 
fore each meal. 

HEALING SALVE. 

Sweet oil, three quarts. 

Resin, three ounces. 

Beeswax, three ounces. 

Melt together ; then add powdered red lead two pounds, 
heat all these together, and when nearly cold add a piece 
of camphor as large as a nutmeg. 

Good for burns, etc. etc. etc. 



.1 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 263 



USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES. 



Take of ipecacuanha in powder, opium (purified,) each 
one part ; sulphate of potass, eight parts. Triturate them 
together into a fine powder. 

The dose is from two to five grains, repeated accord- 
ing as the patient's stomach and strength can bear it. It 
Is proper to avoid much drinking immediately after taking 
it, otherwise it is very apt to be rejected by vomiting, be- 
fore any other effects are produced. Perspiration should 
be kept up by diluents. 

COMPOUND SOAP LINIMENT. 

Take of camphor, one ounce ; soap, three ounces ; spirit 
of rosemary, one pint. 

Digest the soap in the spirit of rosemary, until it be dis- 
solved, and add to it the camphor. This is useful to ex- 
cite action on the surface, and is used to disperse scrofu- 
lous enlargements, and to moisten flannel which is applied 
to the throat in cases of quinsy. 

SIMPLE OINTMENT. 

Take of olive oil, five ounces ; white wax, two ounces. 
This is a useful emollient ointment for softening the 
skin. 

COMPOUND BURGUNDY PITCH PLASTER. 

Take of Burgundy pitch, two pounds ; laudanum, one 
pound ; yello" resin, and yellow wax, each four ounces. 



264 

To the pitch, resin, and wax, melted together, add first 
the laudanum. 

After a long-continued cough in the winter, a Burgun- 
dy pitch plaster should be put over the breast-bone. 

ADHESIVE PLASTER. 

Take of common, or litharge plaster, five parts ; white 
resin, one part. 

Melt them together, and spread the liquid compound 
thin, on strips of linen, by means of a spatula, or table- 
knife. 

This plaster is very adhesive and is used for keeping 
on other dressings, etc. y 

TINCTURE OF GINGER. 

Take or ginger, in coarse powder, two ounces ; alcohol, 
two pints. 

Digest in a gentle heat for seven days, and strain. 

This tincture is cordial and stimulant, and is general, 
ly employed as a corrective to purgative draughts. 

GODFREY S CORDIAL. 

Dissolve half an ounce of opium, one drachm of oil of 
sassafras, in two ounces of alcohol. Now mix four pounds 
of molasses, with one gallon of water, and when cold mix 
both solutions. This is generally used to soothe the pains 
of children, etc. 

SYRUP OF POPPIES. 

Take of the heads of white poppies, dried, three pounds 
and a half; double-refined sugar, six pounds; water, eight 
gallons. 

Slice and bruise the heads, then boil them in the water 
to three gallons, and press out the decoction. Reduce 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 265 

this by boiling, to about four pints, and strain it while hot 
through a sieve, then through a thin woollen cloth, and set 
it aside for twelve hours, that the grounds may subside. 
Boil the liquor poured off from the grounds to three 
pints, and dissolve the sugar in it, that it may be made a 
syrup. 

This syrup, impregnated with the narcotic matter of 
the poppy-head, is given to children in doses of two or 
three drachms, and to adults of from half an ounce, to one 
ounce and upward, for easing pain, procuring rest, and 
answering the other intentions of mild operations. Par- 
ticular care is requisite in its preparation, that it may be 
always made, as nearly as possible, of the same strength. 

TAR WATER. 

Take of tar, two pints ; water, one gallon. Mix, by 
stirring them with a wooden rod for a quarter of an hour, 
and, after the tar has subsided, strain the liquor, and keep 
it in well-corked phials. 

Tar-water should have the color of white wine, and an 
empyreumatic taste. It acts as a stimulant, raising the 
pulse, and increasing the discharge by the skin and kid- 
neys. It may be drank to the extent of a pint or two in 
course of a day. 

DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. 

Take of sarsaparilla root, cut, six ounces ; water, eight 

pints. 

After macerating for two hours, with a heat about 195 
degrees, then take out the root and bruise it ; add it again 
to the liquor, and macerate it for two hours longer : then 
boil down the liquor to four pints, and strain it. The 
dose is from four ounces, to half a pint, or more, daily. 



266( THE farmer's and 

DECOCTION OF THE WOODS. 

Take of guaiacum raspings, three ounces ; raisins, 
stoned, two ounces ; sassafras root, sliced, liquorice root, 
bruised, each one ounce ; water, ten pounds. 

Boil the guaiacum and raisins with the water, over a 
gentle fire, to the consumption of one half, adding, toward 
the end, the sassafras and liquorice, and strain the decoc- 
tion without expression. 

This decoction is of use in some rheumatic and cuta- 
neous affections. It may be taken by itself, to the quan- 
tity of a quarter of a pint, twice or thrice a day, or used 
as an assistant in a course of mercurial or antimonial al- 
teratives ; the patient in either case keeping warm, in 
order to promote the operation of the medicine. 

WATER GRUEL. 

Put a large spoonful of oatmeal into a pint of water, 
stir it well together, and let it boil n ree or four times, 
stirring it often. Then strain it through a sieve, put in 
some salt according to taste, and if necessary add a piece 
of fresh butter. Stir with a spoon, until the butter is 
melted, when it will be fine and smooth. ., 

PANADA. 

Put a blade of mace, a large piece of the crumb of 
bread, and a quart of water, in a clean saucepan. Let 
it boil two minutes, then take out the bread, and bruise it 
very fine in a basin. Mix with it as much of the warm 
water as it will require, pour away the rest, and sweeten 
it to the taste of the patient. If necessary, put in a piece 
of butter of the size of a walnut, but add no wine. Grate 
in a little nutmeg if requisite. 



THE emigrant's HAND-EOOK. 207 

ISIxNGLASS JELLY, ETC. 

Pul an ounce of isinglass, and half an ounce of cloves, 
into a quart of water. Boil it down to a pint, strain it 
upon a pound of loaf-sugar, and when cold add a little 
wine, when it will be fit for use. A very nourishing 
beverage may be made by merely boiling the isinglass 
with milk, and sweetening with lump-sugar. 

BEEF TEA. 

Take off the fat and skin from a pound of lean beef, 
and cut it into pieces. Then put it into a gallon of water, 
with the under crust of a penny loaf, and a small portion 
of salt. Let the whole boil till reduced to two quarts, and 
strain, when it will be fit for use. 

Another method. — In some cases, when the patient is 
very weak, the tea must be made thus : Take a piece of 
lean beef, cut it across and across, then pour on it scald- 
ing water. Cover it up close, and let it stand till cold. 
Then pour it off, and warm it as the patient requires, 
having seasoned it moderately. 

TRANSPARENT SOUP FOR CONVALESCENTS. 

Cut the meat from a leg of veal into small pieces, and 
break the bone into several bits. Put the meat into a very 
large jug, and the bones at the top, with a bunch of com- 
mon sweet herbs, a quarter of an ounce of mace, and half 
a pound of almonds, finely blanched and beaten. Pour 
on it four quarts of boiling water, and let it stand all 
night, covered close by the fireside. The next day put it 
into a well-tinned saucepan, and let it boil slowly, till it 
is reduced to two quarts. Be careful, at the time it is 
boiling, to skim it, and take off the fat as it rises. Strain 
into a bowl, and when settled for two hours, pour it into 



268 THE FARMER S AND 

a clean saucepan, clear from the sediments, if any. Add 
three ounces of rice, previously boiled in a little water. 
When once more boiled, it will be fit for use 

SEIDLITZ POWDERS. 

Take of Rochelle salts, one drachm ; carbonate of soda, 
twenty-five grains ; tartaric acid, twenty grains. 

Dissolve the two first in a tumbler of water, then add 
the latter, and swallow without loss of time. 



OF ACCIDENTS. 

Whenever a blow has been inflicted, whether by being 
thrown from a horse, out of a carriage, by falling from a 
height, or any other way, bleed the patient to the amount 
of twelve or fourteen ounces, on the spot, if practicable ; 
if not, as soon after the accident as possible. This rule 
admits of but one exception, and that is, when the vio- 
lence has been so great as nearly to extinguish all the 
powers of life, in which case, it is proper to wait for symp- 
toms of returning animation. To hasten these, a little 
wine and water, or other stimulus may be given. 

If, in consequence of a broken bone or other injury, 
the patient is unable to walk, take a door from its hinges, 
lay him carefully on it, and have him carried by assist- 
ance to the nearest house. If no door or sofa can be 
procured, two boards, sufficiently long and broad, should 
be nailed to two cross-pieces, the ends of which must pro- 
ject about a foot, so as to form handles. If in the woods, 
or where no boards can be procured, a litter may be 
formed from the branches of trees. In this way a hand- 
barrow may be constructed in a few minutes, on which 
the sufferer may be properly carried. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 269 

If he has been wounded and bleeds, the bleeding must 
'oe stopped before he is removed. 

Having reached a house, lay him on a bed, and undress 
him v^^ith care and gentleness. If any difficulty arises 
In getting off his coat or pantaloons, rip up the seams, 
rather than use force. This being done, proceed to as- 
certain the nature of the injury. 

This may be either simple or compound ; that is, it 
may be a contusion or bruise, a wound, fracture or dislo- 
cation, or it may be two or all of them united in one or 
several parts. 

A contusion . is the necessary consequence of every 
blow, and is known by the swelling and discoloration of 
the skin. 

Wounds are self-evident. 

Fractures are known by the sudden and severe pain, 
by the mis-shapen appearance of the limb, sometimes by 
its being shortened, by the patient being unable to move 
it without excruciating pain, but most certainly, by grasp- 
ing the limb above and below the spot where the fracture 
is supposed to exist, and twisting it different ways, when 
a grating will be felt, occasioned by the broken ends of 
the bone rubbing against each other. If the swelling, 
however, is very great, this experiment should not be 
made until it is reduced. 

Dislocations, or bones being out of joint, are known by 
the deformity of the joint when compared with its fellow, 
by the pain and inability to move the limb, by its being 
longer or shorter than usual, and by the impossibility of 
moving it in particular directions. ^ 

OF SPRAINS. 

Plunge the part sprained into very cold water, and 
hoM it there as long at a time as you can bear it — for 



270 THE FARBIER S AND 

several hours — then rub it well with camphorated spirits. 
If the accident has happened to a joint, as in the ankle, 
and it remains weak, pour cold water on it from the spout 
of a tea-kettle, held at a distance, several times in the day. 

OF CONTUSIONS. 

If slight, bathe the part frequently with cold vinegar and 
water for a few hours, and then rub it well with brandy, or 
spirits of any kind. Should it be very great, or so as to 
have affected the whole body, which may be known by 
a general soreness, bleed and purge the patient, and con. 
fine him to a diet of rice-water, lemonade, panada, etc. 
If fever comes on, repeat the bleeding, purging, etc. In 
all cases of this nature, be sure the water is regularly 
evacuated, for it sometimes happens that in consequence 
of the nerves of the bladder being palsied by the blow, the 
patient feels no desire to pass it, though the bladder be 
full. If a suppression ensues, pass a catheter, if possible, 
or procure assistance for that purpose. The most serious 
effects, however, resulting from contusion, are when the 
blow is applied to the head, producing either concussion 
or compression of the brain. 

CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. 

Symptoms — The patient is stunned ; his breathing slow ; 
drowsiness; stupidity; the pupil of the eye rather contract- 
ed ; vomiting. After a time he recovers. 

Treatment. — Apply cloths dipped in cold vinegar and 
water to his head, and when the stupor is gone bleed 
him, and open his bowels with epsom salts. He should be 
confined to the bed, kept on a low. diet, in a quiet situation, 
and every measure taken to prevent an inflammation ot 
the brain ; which, if it comes on, must be treated by co- 
pious bleeding, blisters, etc. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. S71 

COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. 

Symptoms — Loss of sense and motion ; slow, noisy and 
laborious breathing; pulse slow and irregular; the muscles 
relaxed, as in a person just dead ; the pupil of the eye 
enlarged, and will not contract even by a strong light; the 
patient lies like one in an apoplectic fit, and cannot be 
roused. 

Treatment. — Open a vein and draw off sixteen or twen- 
ty ounces of blood ; shave the head, and, if possible, pro- 
cure surgical assistance without delay, as there is nothing 
but an operation that can be of any avail. 

OF WOUNDS. 

Wounds are of three kinds, viz : incised, punctured, and 
contused ; among the latter are included "gunshot wounds. 
The first step in all wounds, is 

TO STOP THE BLEEDING. 

If the flow of blood is but trifling, draw the edges of the 
wound together with your hand, and hold them in that 
position some time, when it will frequently stop. If, on 
the contrary, it is large, of a bright red color, flowing in 
spirts or with a jerk, clap your finger on the spot it springs 
from, and hold it there with a firm pressure, while you 
direct some one to pass a handkerchief round the limb 
(supposing the wound to be in one,) above the cut, and 
to tie its two ends together in a hard knot. A cane, whip- 
handle, or stick of any kind, must now be passed under 
the knot, (between the upper surface of the limb and the 
handkerchief.) and turned round and round until the stick 
is brought down to the thigh, so as to make the handker- 
chief encircle it with considerable tightness. You may 
then take oflfyour finger, if the blood still flows, and tight- 



27!^ 

en the handkerchief by a turn or two of the stick, until it 
Ceases. The patient may now be removed (taking care 
to secure the stick in its position,) without running any 
risk of bleeding to death by the way. 

As this apparatus cannot be left on for any length of 
time, without destroying the life of the parts, endeavor as 
soon as possible to secure the bleeding vessels, and take 
it off. Having waxed together three or four threads of a 
sufficient length, cut the ligature they form into as many 
piecea as you think there are vessels to be taken up, each 
piece being about a foot long. Wash the parts with 
warm water, and then with a sharp hook or a slender pair 
of pincers in your hand, fix your eye steadily upon the 
wound, and direct the handkerchief to be relaxed by a 
turn or two of the stick ; you will now see the mouth of 
the artery from which the blood springs; seize it with 
your hook or pincers, draw it a little out, while some one 
passes a ligature round it, and ties it up tight with a 
flouble knot. In this way, take up in succession every 
bleeding vessel you can see or get hold of. 

If the wound is too high up in a limb to apply the 
handkerchief, do n't lose your presence of mind : the bleed- 
ing can still be commanded. If it is the thigh, press firm- 
ly in the groin ; if in the arm, with the hand-end or ring 
of a common door key, make pressure above the collar 
bone, and about its middle against the first rib which lies 
under it. The pressure is to be continued until assistance 
is procured, and the vessel tied up. 

If the wound is on the head, press your finger firmly 
on it, until a compress can be brought, which must be 
bound firmly over the artery by a bandage. If the wound 
is in the face, or so situated that pressure cannot be effect- 
ually made, or you cannot get hold of the vessel, and the 
blood flows fast, place a piece of ice directly over the 



THE EMIGKANT*S HAND-BOOK. 273 

wound, and let it remain there till the blood coagulates, 
when it may be removed, and a compress and bandage 
be applied. 

INCISED WOUNDS. 

By an incised wound is meant a clean cut. Having 
stopped the bleeding, wash away all dirt, etc., that may 
*9e in it with a sponge and warm water, then draw the 
yides of the wound together, and keep them in that position 
by narrow strips of sticking-plaster, placed on at regular 
distances, or from one to two inches apart. A soft com- 
press of old linen or lint may be laid over the whole. 

Should much inflammation follow, remove the strips, 
bleed and purge the patient, (who should live very low, 
and be kept perfectly quiet,) according to the exigency of 
the case. If it is plain that matter must form before the 
wound will heal, apply a soft poultice before that event 
takes place, when dressings of some simple ointment may 
be substituted for it. 

Although narrow strips of linen, spread with sticking, 
plaster, form the best means of keeping the sides of a 
wound together, when they can be applied, yet in the ear, 
nose, tongue, lips, and eyelids, it is necessary to use 
stitches, which are made in the following manner : Hav- 
ing armed a common needle with a double waxed thread, 
pass the point of it through the skin, at a little distance 
from the edge of the cut, and bring it out of the opposite 
one, at the same distance. If more than one stitch is re- 
quired, cut off the needle, thread it again, and proceed as 
before, until a sufficient number are taken, leaving the 
threads loose until all the stitches are passed, when the 
respective ends of each thread must be tied in a hard dou- 
ble knot, drawn in such a way that it bears a little on the 
side of the cut. When the edges of the wound are partly 
12* 



274 THE farmer's and 

united by inflammation, cut the knots carefully, and with- 
draw the threads. 

From what has been said, it must be evident that in all 
wounds, after arresting the flow of blood, and cleansing 
the parts, if necesssary, the great object is to bring 
their sides into contact throughout their whole depth, in 
order that they may grow together as quick as possible, 
and without the intervention of matter. To obtain this 
very desirable result, in addition to the means already 
mentioned, there are two things to be attended to ; the po- 
sition of the patient, and the application of the bandage. 
The position of the patient should be such as will relax 
the skin and muscles of the part wounded, thereby dimin- 
ishing their tendency to separate. 

A common bandage of a proper width, passed over the 
compresses moderately tight, not only serves to keep them 
in their place, but also tends, by its pressure, to forward 
tne great object already mentioned. If, however, the 
wound is so extensive and painful, that the limb or body 
of the patient cannot be raised for the purpose of applying 
or removing it, the best way is to spread the two ends of 
one or two strips of linen or leather with sticking-plaster, 
which may be applied in place of the bandage, as follows : 
attach one end of a strip to the sound skin, at a short dis- 
tance from the compress, over which it is to be drawn 
with moderate firmness, and secured in a similar manner 
to the opposite side. A second or third may, if necessary, 
be added in the same way. 

In all wounds, if violent inflammation come on, reduce it 
by bleeding, purging, etc. 

PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 

These are caused by sharp-pointed instruments, as 
needles, awls, nails, etc. Having stopped the bleeding, 



I 



THE emigrant's HA.VD-BOOK. 275 

withdraw any foreign body, as part of a needle, splinters, 
bit of a glass, etc. that may be in it, provided it can be 
done easily : and if enlarging the wound a little will enable 
you to succeed in this, do so. Though it is not always 
necessary to enlarge wounds of this nature, yet in hot 
weather it is a work of precaution, which should never be 
omitted. As soon as this is done, pour a little turpentine 
into the wound, or touch it with caustic, and then cover it 
with a poultice, moistened with laudanum. This practice 
may prevent locked-jaw, which is but too frequent a con- 
sequence of wounds of this description. When matter 
forms, cover the part with mild dressings, as a common 
sore. Laudanum may be given in large doses, to relieve 
pain, and should the inflammation be excessive, bleed and 
purge. In hot weather, however, bleeding should be em- 
ployed in great moderation. 

CONTUSED WOUNDS. 

Wounds of this nature are caused by round or blunt bod- 
ies, as musket balls, clubs, stones, etc. They are in general 
attended but by little bleeding ; if, however, there should 
be any, it niust be stopped. If it arises from a ball which 
can be easily found and withdrawn, it is proper to do so, as 
well as any piece of the clothing, etc., that maybe in it; 
or if the ball can be distinctly felt directly under the skin, 
make an incision across it, and take it out, but never al- 
low any poking in the wound to search for such things ; 
the best extractor of them, as well as the first and best 
application in contused wounds, proceed from what they 
may, being a soft bread-and-milk poultice. 

Should the inflammation be great, bleed and purge. 
Pain may be relieved by laudanum, and if the parts as- 
sume a dark look, threatening mortification, cover them 
with a blister. 



276 THE farmer's and 

If the wound is much torn, wash the parts very niceiy 
with warm water, and then (having secured every bleed- 
ing vessel,) lay them all down in as natural a position as 
you can, drawing their edges gently together, or as much 
so as possible, by strips of sticking-plaster, or stitches, 
if necessary. A soft poultice is to be applied over the 
whole. 



POISONED WOUNDS FROM BITES OF MAD DOGS, RATTLE 
SNAKES, ETC. ETC. 

The instant a person is bitten, either by a mad dog 
or any other rabid animal or reptile, he should applj 
a ligature by means of the stick, above the wound, aj 
tightly as he can well bear it, and without hesitation oi 
delay, cut out the parts bitten, taking along with them 
a portion of the surrounding sound flesh. The wound 
should then be freely touched with caustic, or have tur. 
pentine poured into it. A decoction of Spanish flies in 
turpentine, may also be applied to the skin surrounding 
the wound. By these means inflammation will be ex- 
cited, and suppuration follow, which may prevent the usual 
dreadful consequences of such accidents. As soon as the 
parts are cut out, take off* the ligature. 

Should the patient be too timid to allow the use of the 
knife, burn the wound very freely with caustic, and place 
in it a tuft of tow or cotton, well moistened with the above 
decoction. The discharge of matter that follows should 
be kept up for some time. The only reasonable chance 
for safety, is found in the above plan, all the vegetable 
and mineral productions that have been hitherto recom- 
mended as internal remedies, being of very doubtful, if 
of any efficacy. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 277 

WOUNDS OF THE EAR, NOSE, ETC. 

Wash the parts clean, and draw the edges of the 
wound together by as many stitches as are necessary. If 
the part is even completely separated, and has been trod- 
den under feet, by washing it in warm water, and placing 
it accurately in the proper place, by the same means, it 
may still adhere. 

WOUNDS OF THE SCALP. 

In all wounds of the scalp it is necessary to shave off 
the hair. When this is done, wash the parts well, and 
draw the edges of the wound together with sticking-plas- 
ter. If it has been violently torn up in several pieces, 
wash and lay them all down on the skull again, drawing 
their edges as nearly together as possible by sticking- 
plaster, or if necessary, by stitches. Cover the whole 
with a soft compress, smeared with some simple oint- 
ment. 

WOUNDS OF THE THROAT. 

Seize and tie up every bleeding vessel you can get 
hold of. If the windpipe is cut only partly through, se- 
cure it with sticking-plaster. If it is completely divided, 
bring its edges together by stitches, taking care to pass 
the needle through the loose membrane that covers the 
windpipe, and not through the windpipe itself. The 
head should be bent upon the breast, and secured by bol- 
sters and bandages in that position, to favor the aproxima- 
tion of the edges of the wound. 

WOUNDS OF THE CHEST. 

If it is a simple incised wound, draw the edges of it to- 
gether by sticking-plaster, cover it with a compress of 



278 

linen, and pass a bandage round the chest. The patient 
is to be confined to his bed, kept on very low diet, and to 
be bled and purged, in order to prevent inflammation. If 
the latter comes on, reduce it by copious and frequent 
bleedings. 

Should it be occasioned by a bullet, extract it, and any 
pieces of cloth, etc., that may be lodged in it, if possible, 
and cover the wound with a piece of linen smeared with 
some simple ointment, taking care that it is not drawn 
into the chest. If a portion of the lung protrudes, return 
it without any delay, but as gently as possible. 

WOUNDS OF THE BELLY. 

Close the wound by strips of sticking-plaster, and 
stitches passed through the skin, about half an inch from 
its edges, and cover the whole with a soft compress, se- 
cured by a bandage. Any inflammation that may arise 
is to be reduced by bleeding, purging, and a blister over 
the whole belly. 

Should any part of the bowels come out at the wound, 
if clean and uninjured, return it as quickly as possible ; 
if covered with dirt, clots of blood, etc., wash it carefully 
in warm water previous to so doing. If the gut is wound- 
ed, and only cut partly through, draw the two edges of it 
together by a stitch, and return it ; if completely divided, 
connect the edges by four stitches at equal distances, and 
replace it in the belly, always leaving the end of the lig- 
ature project from the external wound, which must be 
closed by sticking-plast^er. In five or six days, if the 
threads are loose, withdraw them gently and carefully 

OF FRACTURES. 

The signs by which fractures may be known, having 
been already pointed out with sufficient minuteness, it 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 279 

will be unnecessary to dwell thereon ; it will be well, 
however, to recollect this general rule : In cases, where, 
from the accompanying circumstances and symptoms, a 
strong suspicion exists that the bone is fractured, it is 
proper to act as though it were positively ascertained to 
be so. 

FRACTURES OF THE COLLAR BONE. 

This accident is of common occurrence, and is known 
at once by passing the finger along it, and by the swell- 
ing, etc. To reduce it, seat the patient in a chair with- 
out any shirt, and place a pretty stout compress of linen, 
made in the shape of a wedge, under his arm, the thick 
end of which should press against the arm-pit. His arm, 
bent to a right angle at the elbow, is now to be brought 
down to his side, and secured in that position by a long 
bandage, which passes over the arm of the affected side, 
and round the body. The fore-arm is to be supported 
across the breast by a sling. It takes from four to five 
weeks to reunite. 

FRACTURES OF THE ARM. 

Seat the patient on a chair, or the side of a bed, let one 
assistant hold the sound arm, while another grasps the 
wrist of the broken one and steadily extends it in an op- 
posite direction, bending the fore-arm a little, to serve as 
a lever. You can now place the bones in their proper 
situation. Two splints of shingle or stout paste-board, 
long enough to reach from below the shoulder to near the 
elbow, must then be well covered with tow or cotton, and 
laid each side of the arm, and kept in that position by a 
bandage. The fore-arm is to be supported in a sling. 
Two smaller splints may for better security be laid be- 



280 THE FARMER S AND 

tween the first ones, that is one on top, and the other 'm- 
derneath the arm, to be secured by the bandage in the 
same way as the others. 

FRACTURES OF THE RIBS. 

When, after a fall or blow, the patient complains of a 
pricking in his side, we may suspect a rib is broken. It 
is ascertained by placing the tips of two or three fingers 
on the spot where the pain is, and desiring the patient to 
cough, when the grating sensation will be felt. All that 
is necessary, is to pass a broad bandage round the chest, 
so tight as to prevent the motion of the ribs in breathing, 
and to observe a low diet. 

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE THROAT. 

Persons are frequently in danger of suffocation from fish 
bones, pins, etc., which stick in the throat. The moment 
an accident of this kind occurs, desire the patient to be 
perfectly still, open his mouth, and look into it. If you 
can see the obstruction, endeavor to seize it, with your 
finger and thumb, or a long slender pair of pincers. If 
it cannot be got up, or is not of a nature to do any injury 
n the stomach, push it down with the handle of a spoon, 
or a flexible round piece of whalebone, the end of which 
is neatly covered with a roll of linen, or anything that 
may be at hand. If you can neither get it up nor 
down, place six grains of tartar emetic in the patient's 
mouth. As it dissolves, it will make him excessively 
sick, and in consequence of the relaxation, the bone, or 
whatever it may be, will descend into the stomach or be 
ejected from the mouth. 

If a pin, button, or other metallic or pointed body has 
been swallowed, (or pushed into the stomach,) make the 
patient eat plentifully of thick rice pudding, and en- 



Tim emigrant's hand book. 281 

deavor to prevent him from going to stool for at least 
twelve hours. 

OF BURNS AND SCALDS. 

There are three kind of remedies employed in accidents 
of this nature. Cooling applications, such as pounded 
ice, snow, vinegar, cold water, lead water, etc. Stimu- 
lants, as warm spirits of turpentine, brandy, or any ardent 
spirits, and carded or raw cotton. 

Any of these articles that happens to be nearest at hand, 
may be tried, although the preference is due to the tur- 
pentine or spirits, which being made hot as the patient can 
bear it, is to be applied to all the burned surface, (so as 
not to touch the adjoining sound skin.) until some common 
basilicon ointment can be thinned with spirits of turpen- 
tine to the consistence of cream, in which state it is spread 
on a linen rag and laid over the part, taking care, as be- 
fore, not to let it touch the sound skin. 

If, however, (the rule is general,) this plan causes great 
pain and inflammation, it must be abandoned, and one of 
the others be resorted to, as the pounded ice, which can 
be readily applied in a bladder. Equal parts of lime- 
water and linseed oil, well mixed, forms one of the most 
soothing of all applications. Should much fever prevail, 
it is to be reduced by bleeding, purging, etc. ; but if, on 
the contrary the system seems to sink, wine, bark, etc., 
must be employed. 

DIRECTIONS FOR BLEEDING. 

Tie up the arm, placing the bandage at least two inches 
above the projection of the elbow joint, and then feel for 
the pulse at the wrist. If it is stopped, the bandage is too 
tight, and must be relaxed. Select the most prominent 
vein and feel with the tip of your finger if any artery lies 



282 

near it. If you feel one pulsating so close to the vein 
that you are fearful of wounding it, choose another. Hav- 
ing set your lancet, (I allude, of course, to the spring lan- 
cet, the only one that can be used with safety,) bend the arm 
in the precise position it is to be kept in while the blood 
flows. The cutting edge of the lancet is now to be placed 
on the vein, while you depress the handle or frame just 
as much as you wish the cut to be deep ; by touching the 
spring on the side with your thumb, the business is done. 
To stop the bleeding, relax the bandage, press the two 
edges of the wound together, place a little compress of 
linen on it, and bind up the whole with a bandage pass, 
ing round the joint in a figure eight. 



THM 



FRUIT GARDEN, 



AHD 



CULTIVATION OF 



FOREST AND FRUIT TREES 



CHAPTER VIII. 



THE FRUIT GARDEN. 



One hundred trees in most cases, would furnish an am- 
ple supply for a family, and may be selected in the fol- 
lowing proportions :* 

15 cherry trees, at 37^ to 50 cents. 

8 apricot do 37^ 

25 pear do 37^ 

15 plum do 37ito 20 

20 peach do 25 

5 nectarine do 25 

8 quince do 25 

4 early apple do 25 

The common nursery prices are added ; and the annual 
interest on this sum, whether borrowed or appropriated, 
would barely replenish a tobacco box through the year. 

Now, a fruit garden containing this number of trees, 
ought to yield a constant supply of cherries for two months ; 
of apricots for one month ; of pears for two months ; of 
plums for three months ; and of peaches for two months. 

One hundred trees would do well on half an acre ; but 
if we allow a square rod for each tree, the fruit garden 
would only be ten rods square. Now, a lot of this size 
may be conveniently appropriated on every farm ; and 
where is the owner who cannot build forty rods of fence ? 
Let him listen, however thorny shrubs would afford the 
best protection — not against quadrupeds, but Plato's " two^ 
legged featherless animals ;" and the sooner such a 
hedge is planted the better. 



286 THE farmer's and 

Unfortunately for the moral character of our population, 
fruit is too generally considered lawful plunder. The 
culturist is allowed to have a full and exclusive right to 
his corn and potatoes — it would be infamy to steal them ; 
but no exclusive right to his fruit — if they can get it. 
Thousands of honorable exceptions to this charge may be 
found, but it is not the less true that a part of our popula- 
tion is tainted, and deserves to be branded with reproach. 

The native fruit of a thinly populated country, growing 
without culture, and free for all — has doubtless had its 
share in producing this laxity of morals. " I would sooner 
have a hundred Irishmen round me than one Yankee," 
was the declaration of a sufferer, whose fruit had been 
plundered near the line of the Erie canal, when that 
great work was in progress. But Europeans are generally 
more exemplary on this point than Americans — shame on 
us ! When Professor Stowe was in Prussia, where the 
roads are lined with fruit trees by order of the government, 
he observed a wisp of straw, attached to particular trees, 
to protect the fruit : a sufficient guard ; but he suggested 
to the coachman that in America, it might only prove an 
invitation to plunder. " Have you no schools V was the 
significant reply. ' 

One thing is worth bearing in mind by those who pur- 
chase fruit trees : the best kinds are generally as hardy as 
the worst, and the difference in price fades into nothing 
when compared with the difference in quality. Nobody 
is satisfied with mean fruit after tasting better. 

For a fruit garden, a western aspect is generally best, 
because it is the least subject to sudden transitions of tem- 
perature. Severe vernal frosts often prove injurious, or 
otherwise, according to the weather that follows. If the 
sky be overcast in the morning, and the air continues cold, 
little or no damage occurs ; but when the sun breaks out 
warm, the injury is the greatest ; and the most so, where 



THE emigrant's HAND-B00«. 



287 



the trees are most exposed to his rays. For this reason, 
a liill or a wood on the east side, may prove very beneficial. 

A northern aspect would go far toward insuring regular 
crops of the peach, nectarine, apricot, if protected from 
the sun and warm winds by a belt of evergreens. On 
sandy soils especially, the reflected heat is often sufficient 
in autumn or winter, to start the buds ; and snow and ice 
have been successfully* heaped round the trees to prevent 
this disaster ; but a northern aspect would probably render 
such labor unnecessary. 

Dry firm ground should be chosen, preferring a sandy 
or gravelly loam, though clay will do with good culture. 
Wet, peaty, or spongy soils are apt to be frosty ; for the 
radiation of heat is much greater than from firmer land. 

Four ORDERS of arranging or planting trees have been 
employed, which the annexed figures exhibit, all drawn 
by the same scale ; and the distance between the nearest 
points (or trees) is intended for one rod. One hundred of 
these are represented in two of the figures ; but in the 
quincuTix, owing to the vacancies in the sides, only ninety- 
eight are given, while in fig. 3 there is a surplus, although 
some vacancies also occur at the sides. 



1 2 

• •••••••• , , , , 



"■ We caused an apple tree to bloom a fortnight later than the rest of the orchard* 

by piling wood round it. 



288 



THE FARMER S AND 



• ••••• 

• ••••• 

• ••••• 

• ••••• 

• ••••• 



The first order requires less calculation, and is more 
generally in use than any other ; but in laying out the 
ground, the boundaries should be first accurately deter- 
mined ; and the lines may then be drawn across it with 
precision. No less care and attention in this respect 
however, would be required by the other orders. 

The quincunx fig. 2, is only a series of squares laid off" 
diagonally ; and we cannot perceive any advantage that 
it has over the common square, though it was formerly 
much in fashion.* 

In the third order, each tree (except at the sides) is 
surrounded by six others, all at equal distances — in other 
words, it stands in the centre of a hexagon, made of six 
equilateral triangles. The trees are thus more equally 
distributed over the ground than by any other arrange- 
ment ; and if cultivated by the plough, the furrows may 
be drawn in three different directions. 

The fourth order, as explained by the figure, may be 
considered as rather a new proposition ; but where a t earn i 
is to cultivate the garden, the plan has some decided ad- 



♦ Pope said of Lord Peterborough, 

" Even he whose lightnings pierced the Iberian lines, 
Now fotms my quincunz, and now ranks my vines.' 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 289 

vantages. The spaces between the rows, are wide enough 
for the deepest ploughing, though it should be more shallow 
near the trees, and in no case come close enough to touch 
them. A lighter plough with one horse walking in the 
last furrow, howevei*, may continue the work, and save 
much manual labor. And where nutriment is so near, the 
roots will soon find it. 

To lay out the garden according to this plan, draw the 
line for the first row, one rod from the fence ; then leave 
a space two rods wide, and draw another line ; and so on 
till the fifth row be completed, which will be one rod from 
the fence on the opposite side. The distance will allow 
room enough to plough between the trees and the fence, and 
for them not to hang over and tempt prowlers to reach 
the fruit on tip-toe. 

Now 10 rods are 165 feet, and 32 subtracted leave 133 
feet, the distance between the first and last trees in the 
row. For 20 trees, 19 intervening spaces are wanted ; 
and 19 into 133 give seven feet for each space. The 
trees though crowded lengthwise, will find ample room to 
spread laterally ; and our experience is decidedly in favor 
of this method. 

It has been found very useful to keep swine and poultry 
in the fruit garden, on account of their services in des- 
troying insects, and especially the curculio. In many 
instances no other protection has been necessary ; but 
where the garden is large, the plum, apricot, and nectarine 
should be planted in the same quarter, so that the hogs, 
(if wanted, may be confined among them for a time. 
Cherries, and even peaches, would also receive benefit from 
their presence, though these fruits generally suffer less 
from this insect than the former sorts. Cherry trees how- 
ever, should stand near together, so that from a central 
seat, a load of shot may profect them. We do not mean 
that all birds fond of cherries should be destroyed, but 
13 



290 

only such as take more than a reasonable share, or that 
render no services in return. 

Many people have a prejudice in favor of birds, that 
no well balanced mind should entertain. " Denizens of 
the air," have no more right to our property that den- 
izens of the earth. Plunderers on two legs are not more 
respectable than plunderers on four legs ; and cedar birds 
are entitled to no more regard than rats, unless personal 
beauty can atone for moral deformity. 

Ornithologists often become partial to the subjects of 
their study, and side with them against the farmer and the 
gardener — magnifying their services and overlooking 
their trespasses. The laborer indeed may drive the 
geese from his cabbages, throw stones at the crows, and 
even shoot a hawk — but not the birds that devour his 
cherries ! 

An amiable writer, in reference to such visitors, says, 
" Such has been the security they have felt in our grounds, 
and so great their increase, that not only cherries, gooseber- 
ries, and currants, but apples, pears, and plums, have been 
ravaged ; and it may become a matter for serious consid- 
eration, whether in continuing our protection, 'we do not 
risk the total loss of some of the most desirable append- 
ages to the dessert." Now if called into council, our ad- 
vice would be^prompt and brief: Treat them according 
to their doings. Make pies of the robins, orioles, and 
cedar birds — one chicken is worth a dozen of them for 
ousiness; but save and protect the blue birds, warblers, 
and sparrows — these are always our friends. 

Stunted trees always produce smaller fruit than when 
the same kind grows on vigorous branches; but the fruit 
suffers in flavor as well as in size. The trees should 
therefore be planted in deep beds of fertile soil. In dry 
seasons more especially this' provision is of great impor- 
tance ; and young trees treated in this manner are not only 



291 

oiore likely to live, but grow much faster, bear much 
sooner, and bear much better fruit than on sterile land. 
All our observations go to justify these remarks. 

When young trees are taken from the nursery, inquiry 
is often made how soon will they come into bearing ? It 
is a very proper question, and it would be a proper an- 
swer to say : Very much according to the treatment they 
shall get. When they are set in holes cut out of a sod, 
just large enough to receive the root swith some crowding, 
and are then left to take care of themselves, we have no 
right to expect them to come soon into bearing, nor to 
bear much when they do. Neither half starved cows, nor 
half starved trees will be found profitable. In the latter 
case especially, the interest on the purchase money is 
generally lost for some years, and not unfrequently the 
purchase too ; but we hardly ever lose a tree in good con- 
dition, set in mellow ground which is kept mellow. 

The holes for the trees should be not less than four feet 
diameter and fifteen inches deep, but a greater breadth 
and depth is desirable. Place the soil round the brink 
of the hole, ready for filling in again ; but scatter the 
. harder sabsoil back out of the way. The hole should 
then be filled with the best earth, and rise a few inches 
above the general surface on account of its settling, first 
mixing three or four shovelfuls of chip-dirt with the part 
that is to come in immediate contact with the roots. It helps 
to keep the ground loose and moist, besides yielding much 
nutriment to the trees. 

The roots of the trees when taken from the nursery 
should be carefully guarded against drying ov freezing. 
If such care however, has not been taken, bury \he frozen 
roots in the ground before they can thaw, and plunge the 
dried roots with several feet of the main stem into water, 
to soak there from 12 to 24 hours, till the moisture is suf- 
ficiently restored. 



292 THE FARMER S AND 

In planting, spread out the roots carefully, and let the 
best point against the strongest winds. Fine or mellow 
earth should fill up all the spaces between the roots, so 
that every fibre shall come in contact with it on every 
side ; and in order to accomplish this intention more per- 
fectly, throw in a pailful of water when the loots are cov- 
ered, to wash the earth down, and to fill up every interstice.* 

Newly planted trees being acted on as levers by the 
wind, often press the earth round their stems aside, and 
make an opening down to their roots, which in conse- 
quence suffer from both drought and disturbance. To 
prevent this disaster, it is theiefore important that stakes 
should be provided to support and stiffen them. If driven 
before the trees are planted, they may be erect ; if driven 
afterward they may be slanting ; and in both cases, straw 
bands should be first wrapped once round to prevent the 
trees from chafing. 

When trees are set in clay which holds water like a 
tub, they soak and often perish ; especially if transplanted 
in autumn. This evil may be readily prevented however, 
when the plough can be introduced, by drawing several 
very deep furrows where the trees are to stand, clearing, 
out the loose earth with the shovel, and then employing 
chips, brush, potatoe tops, straw, cornstalks, or old rails, in 
constructing an under drain. Even if made with these 
materials, it would last for an age, for when mouldered 
into earth, the water would soak away along the seam. 

Early in summer, after the trees are planted, let the 
ground be well dug round with the spade, commencing 
shallow near the trees, but deepening as soon as there is 
no danger of disturbing the roots. One spading is worth 
several hoeings, though the broad hoe may be profitably 

* An experienced horticulturist says, " Nine-tenths of the deaths from transp ant- 
ing arise from the hollows lefl among the roots of trees by a careless and rapid 
mode of shovelling the earth in about the roots." 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 293 

employed once a month after the spade has thoroughly 
loosened the soil. Trees managed in this way, will grow 
much faster than if the ground were just scratched over 
» the depth of an inch or so ; and many of ours have grown 
as luxuriantly through the late excessive drought, as if 
(hey were in want of nothing. 

The pruning of young trees to prevent their splitting 
down, is a very important operation. Many are greatly 
injured and sometimes ruined, for want of this precaution. 
Where the limbs diverge considerably, nature has pro- 
vided a kind of net- work of the firmest wood to connect 
them together ; but where two leading branches take 
nearly the same direction, they soon begin to press against 
each other ; and the bark interposing, the wood is pre- 
vented from uniting. The consequence generally is, that 
when loaded with fruit, they are broken down by the wind. 
Now it is far better to cut off the limb in time. No ma- 
terial loss is sustained, as all the nutriment flows into the 
other branches, and increases their vigor. 

The advantage of pruning apple trees, is generally 
known ; and unless many of the limbs are cut out, some 
of the finest varieties become comparatively diminutive 
and insipid. The same care however, is rarely extended 
to other fruit trees. When the twigs become stunted and 
mossy, sometimes they are trimmed by the tempest, or 
broken down by an untimely fall of snow ; and then the 
benefits of pruning are manifest, even when done in that 
rough style. It is better however, to depend on art than 
accident. As a general rule, the best flavored fruit of 
the kind grows on the most vigorous branches well ex- 
posed to the sun and air ; and with this idea constantly 
before us, we shall hardly do amiss when we apply the 
axe, the saw, or the chisel ; though we may specify that 
cross branches should be lopped, and thrifty shoots that 
have room to spread, should be saved. 



294 

The tree mosses are parasitic plants, and should be ex- 
pelled from the fruit garden. Lye is often used for this 
purpose on the apple tree ; but we think it is no better 
than lime whitewash, which purifies the bark, and leaves 
it in a fine healthy condition. Once a year is quite suf- 
ficient. 

Under deep snows, or snow-drifts that settle around the 
trees, the meadow mouse often gnaws the bark to their 
great injury or destruction. This animal however always 
works under cover; and therefore the damage may be 
generally prevented by piling mellow earth round the 
stems, a foot high, late in autumn. The snow as it falls, 
is generally swept away from the pile by the wind ; and 
even if the mouse should persist in climbing up on the 
earth — which we have not known him to do — he would 
soon come out into the open air, except when the snow 
was very deep. 

Another method which has never failed with us, though 
requiring attention — is to tread the snow firmly doicn round 
the stems ; and this should be carefully done every time 
that a deep snow falls, or whenever a drift is forming 
round the trees. The mouse, as he roots along, always 
turns away from the hardened snow. 

Trees completely girdled by the mice however, may 
be saved by setting grafts early in the spring to restore 
the communication between the two detached portions of 
the tree — in other words, by grafting them together. Part 
of a small branch should be inlaid^ both above and below ; 
and if skilfully done and carefully coated over with 
grafting mud or wax, it will be very likely to grow, ex- 
cept on the peach or nectarine. We have succeeded in 
this way on a pear tree ; but three or four should be set 
round the tree. 

Cultivated cherries belong to several species, which 
have spread into many varieties, and probably hybrids. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 295 

The caterpillar sometimes feeds on the leaves ; and the 
curculio punctures some of the fruit which in consequence 
becomes wormy ; but no fruit tree yields a more certain 
crop, bearing every year without intermission unless the 
blossoms or young fruit be damaged by frost. Some kinds 
however, as the morello^ have been nearly destroyed in 
some parts of the country by the " black gum." This 
excrescence is caused by an insect which should be care- 
fully sought for, late in the spring or early in the silmmer ; 
and as soon as the bunches appea;*, the limb should be 
cut off and burnt. 

The slug, another insect, feeds on the pulpy part of the 
leaf, despoiling its verdure and wasting the vigor of the 
tree. It might almost be mistaken for the filth of some 
little bird. It soon renders itself conspicuous however, 
by its works ; and though it sometimes attacks the foliage 
of other trees, the cherry leaf appears to be its favorite 
food. It may be destroyed by throwing fresh ashes among 
the branches by means of a shingle — every worm that is 
covered, perishes. It has been done when the dew was 
on the leaves ; but if the slug is moist enough of itself to 
catch the ashes, it would be better to apply them when 
the leaves are dry, because the latter would neither be 
injured by the potash, nor defiled by the dust. 

The cherry tree is more impatient of nuisances than 
most other kinds. Some have been destroyed by ashes 
thrown round the stem. Under two trees, the pigs were 
fed with corn, and the cobs scattered over the ground : 
both perished. In a slight depression near another, the 
water collected in rainy weather, and the geese dabbled 
in it: the tree died the same summer. Lime whitewash 
has also been charged with injuring the cherry tree ; and 
if it be used at all, the experiment should be cautiously 
conducted. 

The morello and Kentish appear to be adapted to a 



296 THE farmer's anu 

greater variety of soils than the heart cherry trees ; and 
may be employed as stocks for the latter in unfavorable 
situations. The outgrowing of the stock by the graft, 
constitutes no valid objection. We have never seen a 
tree endangered by such overgrowth, while the obstruction 
to the descent of the juices, favors the enlargement of the 
fruit. 

The apricot was formerly ranked with the plum, but 
it differs enough to stand separate. Like the plum how- 
ever, it has a smooth stone, and turns sour with heat ; 
though in flavor it resembles the peach more than any of 
our fruits. It resembles it also in the excitability of the 
fruit buds in winter. Its earlier bloom exposes it rather 
more to severe weather in the spring, but generally it 
succeeds wherever the peach can be successfully culti- 
vated. In this climate, the tree is perfectly hardy. 

There are two species of the apricot ; the black, and 
the common sort, which has spread into many varieties. 
Ripening earlier than the peach, their presence in the 
fruit garden is very desirable. 

Neither the borer nor the caterpillar attack the pear 
tree ; but sometimes flies, wasps, and hornets are busy 
among the leaves, showing that all is not right, and that 
honey-dew emitted by plant lice, attracts them. But this 
tree is subject to a more serious injury, viz : the fire 
Might, which occurs early in summer, the leaves from the 
extremity of the branches for two or more feet, appearing 
as if they were scorched. Wer think, however, that two 
distinct causes occasionally operate to produce similar 
effects, viz : insects, and a starting of the bark in winter. 

The late Professor Peck, on examining the branch of a 
pear tree, which had died with fire blight, said the dam- 
age was caused by an insect, {Scolytus pyri,) and that to 
cut off the limbs a foot or more below the dead part, and 
IMMEDIATELY BURN THEM, would be the proper remedy. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 297 

We have faithfully followed this advice ; and though the 
fire blight has been several times in the fruit garden, its 
ravages have always been arrested at once, so that we 
have not lost a tree from this cause in twenty years. We 
have believed that the new colonies went with us when 
we carried off and destroyed the branches. 

The starting of the bark in winter, appears to be caused 
by an untimely tiowing of the sap, followed by intense 
cold, which expands into ice, and separates the bark from 
the wood. We have observed such effects once or twice, 
succeeded on some of the smaller branches, by a blight- 
ing of the leaves, but we believe it seldom occurs in this 
district. 

The plum tree is sometimes, though rarely, attacked 
by the peach toorm in Western New- York. Its most for- 
midable enemy however, is the insect that causes the 
" black gitm,^' similar in its effects to the insect that de- 
stroys the morello, if they are not identical. Be this as 
it may, it is rapidly increasing ; and unless our farmers, 
shall turn over a new leaf, the plum will soon become 
very rare among us. In every direction that we travel, 
branches are covered with these excrescences ; and if 
there is one man within fifty miles of us who has done 
his duty, we should be pleased to hear it. 

To guard against this insect, the trees should be well 
pruned, though not enough to check their vigor, so that 
the hunches may be readily discovered. Unless this pre- 
caution be taken, it would be very difficult to find all of 
them, without spending more time than people in general 
have to spare. Let there be no delay in cutting off and 
burning them when they are found. 

It appears that the eggs of this insect are deposited in 

a slit of the bark some time during the summer, and where 

they generally pass the winter without hatching. Soon 

after vegetation commences in the spring, a kind of fun- 

13* 



298 THE farmer's and 

gous wood is formed, swelling out on one side of the branch, 
and among this the young progeny find nourishment and 
shelter. This fungous wood however, appears not to be 
occasioned by the worm, for it often occurs where there 
are none, but by some irritating secretion from the parent. 

After the late severe drought, when the trees took a 
second growth, we found several new excrescences so lato 
in the season, that probably the worms would have 
perished with cold if we had not arrested their career. 
Does the starting of the fungous wood cause the eggs to 
hatch ? 

We have spoken of insects that depredate on the trees : 
we now turn to such as injure i\\e fruit by puncturing and 
then depositing a nit, so that it becomes wormy, and drops 
prematurely from the tree. 

Every person that cultivates the plum, apricot, or nec- 
tarine, ought to be acquainted with the curculio, both 
by sight and character. There ought to be a good draw- 
ing of this insect, but we have seen none ; and at this 
season of the year, we cannot have one prepared. It is 
however, a dark-brown bug, about a quarter of an inch 
long, and of singular forni, having a slender neck and 
head. When it drops from the tree, it lies still, pretend- 
ing to be dead; or if a dried blossom or leaf be near, 
where it can hide, it moves cautiously under, fearing to 
be seen in motion. When crushed between the thumb 
and finger, it feels 1 ke Indian meal, and like no other in- 
sect that we have examined. 

It is timid ; and when hogs, sheep, or cattle pass fre- 
quently under the trees, it is scarcer than in more retired 
places. Trees that stand near a door where there is much 
passing, are often entirely exempt from its visits ; and the 
same result occurs where they stand in a lane or barn- 
yard. The late Thomas Forrest of Germantown, near 
Philadelphia, tied one end of a cord to a plum tree, and 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 299 

the otiier end to his pump-handle, so that it shook the tree 
whenever they drew water. It saved the fruit. 

This insect on one point is very sagacious. It is un- 
willing to liave its progeny drop on the pavement, or into 
water. The same shrewd horticulturist set hrs nectarine 
trees leaning over the fish-pond, and not a curculio dis- 
turbed them. In regard to pavements, we have had 
several accounts of their efficacy. A friend of ours had 
his plums to ripen perfectly over a pavement, while oth- 
ers, without this protection, though otherwise favorably 
situated, were entirely destroyed. 

Only a few trees, however, can be guarded in this way. 
For the fruit garden, we want something more compre- 
hensive, and have already referred to the services of 
swine and poultry. They devour much of the wormy 
fruit, and the young curculios along with it ; but some 
of the insects probably escape, besides all such as leave 
the fruit before it falls.* How long they live, is not 
known ; but if we may judge from their difference of size, 
it may be many years ; and to this company, the new 
brood is annually added. Unless the swine and poultry, 
therefore, can induce them to migrate, the fruit must suf- 
fer greatly from their ravages, and such has been our 
experience. 

Finding many of our trees nearly unproductive, we 
determined in the early part of last summer, to call these 
depredators to account. Accordingly, we followed the 
same plan that we recommended some years ago in the 
" New- York Farmer :" — spread sheets under the trees, 
and jarred the branches violently. The little marauders 
taken by surprise, fell down by dozens ; and the contrast 
of colors, enabled us to detect them at a glance. We 
chose the cool of the morning foj' this purpose, when they 

* Last summer, we observed several cases of this kind, where the larva had ef- 
caped through small holes in the sides of plums and apricots. 



300 THE farmer's and 

were slightly benumbed ; and persevered till we had des- 
troyed nearly seventeen hundred. In consequence, all 
the trees that we visited, bore fruit in abundance ; and 
to prove that our labor was rewarded, a tree that was 
overlooked bore three apricots, while another of less size 
bore half a bushel. 

During its migrations, the curculio doubtless uses its 
wings ; and near its native spot it may occasionally fly 
into the tree ; but from several circumstances, we con- 
clude that it generally ascends by crawling. With this 
belief, circular tin troughs have been fastened round the 
trees ; and being filled, and kept filled, with water, have 
been found useful — for this insect is no navigator. These 
appendages, however, should be applied very early in the 
spring, before it gets up the trees. Afterward they are 
not likely to be of any benefit whatever. 

When the earlier accounts of the curculio were pub- 
lished, it was believed to be identical with the worms that 
infest the apple, pear, and quince ; but Noyes Darling of 
New-Haven, more than ten years ago, discovered that 
they were very distinct: and we repeated his experiment 
with the same result. It is a dark-gray miller that at- 
tacks the apple and the pear, and probably the quince. 
It was also thought that the curculio continued its ravages 
until autumn ; but the same sagacious horticulturist found 
that its work was finished before midsummer. 

The mark which it leaves on the fruit that it punctures, 
is in form of a crescent ; and we have never seen that 
mark except on stone fruit. 

The down of the peach generally protects it against the 
curculio, but the nectarine, which is only a smooth skin 
variety of peculiar flavor, often suffers even more than 
the plum or the apricot. • 

The peach wonn {^geria exiiiosd) attacks the tree at 
the root, where the bark is soft from the moisture of the 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 301 

ground, or the shading of grass; but it avoids the hard, 
scaly part, so that old trees are often undisturbed for years. 
On the reverse, young trees are much injured by it, and 
sometimes destroyed, especially where two or more are 
at work at the same time. If they encircle the tree, there 
is no hope of its rcovery, but this is rarely accomplished 
by one worm. 

Though it feeds on the pulpy part of the bark, it seems 
careful not to disturb the cuticle, so that were it not for 
the gum and filth mixed together on the outside, it would 
be difficult to find the depredator. The fresh filth however, 
sufficently indicates its presence. By entering a knife 
at that point, and slitting the cuticle longitudinally, the 
establishment is soon broken up, for it is seldom four in- 
ches in length; and then we discover a white grub three 
quarters of an inch long, which is readily extracted. 
When it is removed, the tree speedily recovers. 

Some persons remove the soil to the depth of two or 
three inches, and apply hot water, hot soap suds, or warm 
brine, at any time in autumn or spring when the ground 
is unfrozen ; and if the gum be also removed, so that the 
fluid can enter the hole, the worm is sure to perish. 

Various methods have been employed to prevent the 
attacks of this insect. In the spring, earth has been 
piled round the tree a foot high, covering up all the bark 
that was tender. With the same object in view, canvas, 
or ropes made of hay or straw, have been wound about 
the stem and then coated with whitewash. Straw in an 
upright position has also been applied. Tan in small 
boxes has answered the same purpose ; and its properties 
are also repulsive. Lime and ashes have the same eflTect, 
Common salt, either alone or mixed with nitre, has been 
found efficacious, besides promoting the growth and pro- 
ductiveness of the tree. Half a pound has been scattered 
round it at a time. Soot employed in the same way, is 



302 THE farmer's and 

highly recommended. A small red cedar, planted in the 
same hole with a peach tree has protected it by its offen- 
sive odor. Charcoal in small pieces, heaped up, is sup- 
posed to smother the worm by choke damp, and sulphur 
to poison it with its fumes. Doubtless all are useful, but 
the appendages should be removed when the warm sea- 
son is over. 

Sometimes a worse evil than the worm, however, over- 
takes the peach tree. This malady was named by the 
late Judge Peters of Pa. " the yellows ;" but the leaves 
are not always yellow as the name would imply. A 
more certain indication is the premature ripening of the 
fruit, with purple discolo rations of the pulp, and deficient 
flavor. As the disease advances bundles of slender twigs 
protrude from the larger branches, and increase till the 
vital energy is exhausted. 

This case is perhaps the only instance of a contagious 
disease among vegetables, communicated by contact of 
Ine roots, or the application of pollen. That such 
are the facts, indeed, has, not been directly proved, but 
the circumstantial evidence is strong and pointed. Young, 
nealthy trees, speedily decline when planted among 
diseased roots. Frequently, the first appearance of the 
premature ripening is confined to a solitary branch, when 
no trace of the disease can be found in any other part of 
the tree. When this happens, it is prudent to amputate 
immediately, although it is doubtful if the tree itself can 
be safely left to stand till it blooms again. In particular 
cases we have pruned closely, destroying the blossom 
buds and giving it a chance for recovery, without endan- 
gering other trees ; but we would not recommend it as a 
general rule, but extirpate the tree in due time. 

It is certainly known, however, that the disease can be 
communicated like the small-pox. We have set buds of 
sickly trees into healthy stocks, and all have perished in 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 303 

the course of the year. Yet different degrees'of virulence, 
perhaps depending on the stage of the disease, are ob. 
servable. 

There can be no doubt that on a sickly tree, the pit or 
kernel is as much affected as the pulp that surrounds it ; 
and therefore such stones ought never to be planted in a 
nurserv. A peach tree not attacked by worms, and free 
from thiS malady, ought to live at least fifty or a hundred 
years ; and we believe no reason whatever, except the 
two just mentioned, can be assigned for their early decay. 
If the worm is not at the root therefore, when the tree is 
sickly, we may conclude it has the yellows ; and that 
this disease, if the pit was tainted, has 

" Grown with its growth, and strengthened with its strength." 

Some varieties of the peach and nectarine, are subject 
to a white mildeia, which appears on the new shoots about 
midsuinmer, checking their growth, but not attended with 
any other ill effects. It seems analogous to the mildew 
on the grape and gooseberry ; and may be cured (it is 
said) by the application of sulphur water. A better course, 
however, for culturists in general, would be to stimulate 
the tree, to make a handsome growth in the early part of 
the season, and to take no further care. 

This disease appears to be* exclusively confined to 
Lindley's first class of peaches and nectarines, " whose 
leaves are deeply and doubly serrated, having no glands." 
Some varieties of this class, however, suffer very little ; 
while others, such as the early Anne, are much impeded 
in their growth. 

The peach is justly considered the most delicious fruit 
of the temperate zone ; and yet it is scarcely known in a 
large proportion of the State of New- York, which we have 
much reason to believe would admit of its successful cul- 
ture. Not only in the high lands between the Cayuga 



804 THE farmer's and 

lake iind the Susquehanna, but also in the elevated region 
between the Great Bend and the Blue Mountain in Penn- 
sylvania, this tree has been found healthy and fruitful. 
We saw several in fine order, the very next season after 
some Iiad perished with the cold in the low and beautiful 
valley of Stroudsburgh. 

To some persons this statement may appear like a para- 
dox. But what are the other facts in this case ? Warmth 
in winter is pernicious. It starts the sap, swells the bud, 
and the intense cold that follows destroys bud and branch. 
On the contrary, the steady cold of the hills is conserva- 
tive. The bud is so exquisitely folded and prepared for 
a severe season, that unless it is disturbed by the sap, it 
is safe from the greatest cold of our latitude. Like the 
seeds of the melon, or a grain of corn, it appears to be 
too dry to freeze. 

In the middle districts of our State, let horticulturists 
therefore remember, that the hills are more favorable to 
the peach than the valleys ; and if their labors are unre- 
warded in the low precincts of their villages, let them oc- 
cupy the neighboring heights, and lay out fruit gardens 
there. Let them also remember that many trees and 
shrubs, which are hardy in a dry rocky soil, perish with 
the cold in a rich border. In the latter case, the wood is 
not sufficiently matured, and the frost strikes it when it is 
full of sap, like a weed. To crop the ends of the peach 
shoots, when they grow too late, has been useful — not so 
soon in the season as to start the buds, but as soon as that 
danger is over. We have alluded to the loss of the fruit 
buds in winter, and the early bloom of this tree. These 
two causes render the peach a more uncertain crop than 
the plum or the cherry; but particular circumstances, 
perhaps not well understood, have had an influence on its 
productiveness. When trees stand in the same imme- 
diate neighborhood, some are barren while others bear j. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 305 

and a belief is becoming prevalent that grassy ground is 
most favorable. Though we are not entirely prepared to 
decide on this point, yet most of our observations lean in 
that direction ; and if it be proved, an exception to our 
plan of managing the fruit garden, ought to be made on 
behalf of the peach, nectarine and apricot, as soon as those 
trees are of full bearing size. 

Some years ago, we drained a shallow swamp; and 
though the situation is high and airy, peach trees of the 
hfst hearing kinds planted there, have always been unpro- 
ductive. Now the annual cultivation of the soil, doubt- 
less rendered it more spongy* and consequently more 
frosty, because it radiated more heat than the paler and 
firmer ground. But was this the only cause ? and if so, 
did it cause the destruction of the buds in winter, or in 
the spring? 

One fact, however, should not be forgotten : To ac- 
celerate the growth of the peach tree when bearing, by 
either culture or pruning, endangers the fruit. In sum- 
mer, therefore, the soil should not be disturbed. 

The quince tree as well as the apple tree, is subject to 
the attacks of the borer. The larva of this insect, re- 
sembles the peach worm ; but it cuts through the solid 
wood, and therefore is much more difficult to extract. 
With a barbed wire, we have often succeeded, and some- 
times failed. In a young tree that had been neglected, 
we found them so deeply intrenched, and their holes so 
winding, that they kept possession. We then made a 
small auger hole through the heart of the tree, and filled 
it with sulphur. A few days after we found one of them 
in a dying state, and no more filth was ejected. Quince 
trees should be examined on this account, at least once a 
year. 

* Would the increased radiation from this cause, be counteracted by spreading 
straw, chaff, or shavings under the trees t 



30« 

As Ihe pear tree is not infested by the borer, it has 
been employed as a stock for the quince tree, and if bud- 
ded or a^rafted a foot or more from the ground, it must 
generally be safe from such attacks. 

The quince tree like the pear tree, however, is subject 
to fire blight ; but only a few inches of the ends of the 
branches, suifer. Whether this appearance is owing to 
the more stunted nature of the tree, or to a different in- 
sect, is not positively known ; but as it is probably caused 
by an insect, it would be prudent to cut off the dying tops, 
and burn them. 

Though winter pears have something like a determinate 
time for ripening, or becoming soft, yet this period may 
be accelerated or retarded, by increasing or diminishing 
the temperature of the place where they are kept. Our 
experiments on this point within the last year, have been 
very conclusive. Pears of a sort that had continued hard 
until spring in a cool cellar, have ripened toward the 
close of autumn, in a warm room ; and by placing them 
in different temperatures, the season for each particular 
kind, may be greatly extended. 

When vnnter fruit is buried in the ground for long keep- 
ing, it should be placed in a box, or on a bed of straw, 
and be well covered with the same, so as not to come in 
contact with the damp earth, which causes it to swell, 
crack, and lose, its flavor ; and to prevent it from becom- 
ing musty, it should be kept in an out-house, till the 
ground begins to freeze. We have never known fruit to 
be damaged, that was treated in this manner, and then 
timely removed in the spring. 



CHAPTER IX. 



GROWING TIMBER ON THE PRAIRIES. 

MANY, very many, of those who have found new homes 
on the broad prairies of the West, have not regarded 
Tnerely the advantage to themselves that would result 
from their removal, but have considered the vastly im- 
proved condition of their children. It is to such the 
subject of arboriculture especially commends itself. A 
quarter section of timber, sown now far out on the open 
prairie, with a fortnight's labor bestowed upon it annually 
for a few years, would, in twenty years, be of itself a 
rich inheritance. We would not, however, recommend 
the using of a quarter section by itself; we would advise 
the farmer to cultivate a strip of timber, of greater or less 
width, as he can afford, on the north and east sides of his 
farm. No more land would be used than if it were cul- 
tivated in a square piece, and in a few years it would 
protect the fruit and crops from the severe winds that 
sweep over the naked prairies. 

SUGAR MAPLE. 

All good citizens, who are desirous of doing good deeds, 
and of being remembered by posterity hereafter, we 
would recommend to transplant a goodly number of su- 
gar maples round their dwellings. We think all will 
see the propriety of giving their immediate attention to 
the growing of this most valuable tree, not only for adorn- 
ing our dwellings, but also, a large number may be set 
in a suitable place on every farm. They, in a few years, 



308 THE farmer's and 

will afford the pure juice for sugar, and the best of timber 
for cabinet and other kinds of work, and all poor trees 
may be worked up for fuel. Our soil is rich and well 
adapted for the sugar maple. 

This tree, beside or around a dwelling is an ornament, 
and also by the road-side. How pleasant and beautiful 
would be the scenery, if this tree, in its full growth and 
splendor, were along each side of our roads! We have 
seen the maple tree no taller than a walking-staff, become, 
in fifteen years, so large as to afford sap and sugar. Be 
not discouraged by looking forward, and say it will be a 
long time before you can have any benefit by sugar. 
You must remember the timber is growing every year, 
and wait with patience, and be assured the other part 
will not fail. 

The sugar maple, if for transplanting, should be of the 
size of from one to two inches in diameter, and from one 
to two feet above the ground. Select those of smooth bark, 
looking young and healthy. We prefer short tops, but 
if long body and top, cut it off so as to leave the body ten 
or twelve feet. The tree being carefully taken up and 
prepared, is to be placed in the ground but one or two 
inches lower than it stood before. Care should be taken 
to place fresh earth round the roots, and till well rooted, 
care should be taken to keep creatures from rubbing 
against them. 

PEACHES. 

Those who would raise peach trees should prefer stones 
that are raised in the north, for if stones from southern 
peaches be planted, the trees will be tender. The peach 
is a tender tree, and peculiar to warm climates, and in 
cultivating it so far from its native climate, care is neces- 
sary to success. We must have particular regard to soil, 



I 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 309 

location, and cultivation ; but first of all, we should be 
cautious to procure hardy stocks. 

Some superior kinds of peaches are propagated from 
the seed, saving the trouble of budding ; and such kinds 
are generally more hardy, productive, and permanent. 
To propagate a good variety in this way, it must in the 
first place be a seedling, that is, the tree must be the 
natural fruit, without budding or grafting. Then the 
tree must set at a distance from any other kind, lest it 
mix in the blossom. Some very fine varieties of peaches 
are now propagated in this way. 

When the meat is taken from the stones, cover them 
up in the earth, or dry them, being careful that they do 
not mould. Before the ground freezes, put them in the 
ground, a foot below the surface, first a layer of stones, 
then a layer of earth. The object in having them so deep 
is to prevent their cracking ; if they are near the surface 
they may crack — then they will vegetate in the spring 
before the ground is dry enough for planting; but bury 
them a foot deep, and they will remain safe even till the 
last of May. In the spring, when the land is dry enough 
to work, and is ploughed and prepared for the trees, take 
up the stones and crack them in evenings or stormy days 
if you please, and if not ready to plant immediately, lay 
the meats in a shallow vessel, lay over them a damp pa- 
per or cloth, and set thom in the cellar ; in this way they 
will keep safe for several days. When ready, plant, 
covering as you would corn, and the seeds are as sure to 
come up as corn, if they be good. The seed comes up 
as well when taken out of the stones as to have the pieces 
of stones around them. 

This is a cheaper way in raising peach trees than to 
plant m the fall. For when planted in the fall, the 
stones are not always opened by the frost, and failures 



310 THE farmer's and 

are common. As the land cannot be ploughed in the 
spring, there will be much extra expense in cultivation. 

Peaches require a sandy loam. A fine sand should be 
preferred, for if they be on a very dry, porous soil, they 
will suffer with the drought. If the soil be moist, the fruit 
will be later, of inferior quality, and the wood will grow 
later — of course it will not ripen so as to endure the cold 
of winter. 

Moderate elevations afford advantages, as in low lands 
there is more danger from late frosts in the spring, and 
in such situations the frosts of winter are more severe ; 
and as the sun has more power in low plains, provided 
the soil be dry, the trees will blossom the earlier, which 
is a serious disadvantage, as cold weather often succeeds. 

On high situations there is more exposure to the winds, 
and less heat to perfect the fruit ; yet in such places 
peaches often succeed. An eastern exposure is consid- 
ered most unfavorable. High cultivation is necessary to 
productiveness and fine fruit. 

MANAGEMENT OF ORCHARDS. 

Before the ground freezes in autumn, dig the earth five 
or six inches deep around the fruit trees, and the distance 
of eight or ten inches from each ; remove it to a suitable 
place and burn it with dry brush, or whatever combusti- 
ble is convenient, to destroy the germ of the canker-worm 
and other hurtful insects. IMix this burnt earth with lime 
or ashes, and a double crop may be expected next season. 
If any farmer or gardener thinks this too much labor, let 
him remember, that there is nothing good under the sun 
obtained without some expense, and that everything in 
nature has its price. Choice fruit is among the greatest 
luxuries of the earth, but cannot be obtained without par- 
ticular attention to the cultivation of the orchard. 



311 

TO PREVENT MOSS ON TREES. 

An excellent plan for preventing young fruit trees from 
becoming hidebound and mossy, and for promoting their 
health and growth, is to take a bucket of soft soap, and to 
apply it with a brush to the stem or trunk from top. to bot- 
tom ; this cleanses the bark, destroys worms or the eggs 
of insects ; and the soap becoming dissolved by rains, 
descends to the roots and causes the tree to grow vigor- 
ously. A boy can make this wholesome application to 
several hundred trees in a kw hours. If soft soap was 
applied to peach trees in the early part of April to remove 
or destroy any eggs or worms that might have been de- 
posited in the autumn, and again in the early part of June, 
when the insect is supposed to begin its summer deposite 
of eggs, it is believed we should hear less of the de- 
struction of peach trees by worms. But the application 
should not he suspended for a single season, on the sup- 
position that the enemy had relaxed in his hostility. Try 
it this spring, and communicate the result with all the 
circumstances. 

TO RESTORE DISEASED PEACH TREES. 

Apply salt and saltpetre, combined in the proportion of 
one part of saltpetre to eight parts of salt ; one half pound 
of this mixture to a tree seven years old and upward, to 
be applied upon the surface of the ground around, and in 
immediate contact with the tree ; this will destroy the 
worm, but to more effectually preserve the tree, sow this, 
mixture over any orchard, at the rate of two bushels to 
the acre. The size of the fruit is increased, and the fla- 
vor very greatly improved, the worm destroyed, and the 
yellows prevented. 

It has been mentioned by writers on the culture of the 



312 

peach tree, that hot water poured round the trunk at the 
surface of the ground, will destroy the worm. 

Soot has been found excellent for this tree. In one 
case that has come to our knowledge, its pale leaves were 
changed into a dark green by this application round its 
roots ; and though the effect may in part have been cau- 
sed by the destruction of the worm, it has doubtless acted 
also as a manure. Those who have stove-pipes to clean 
and peach trees to cultivate, should save the soot for this 
purpose. 

One of the most deplorable conditions that a peach tree 
can be placed in, is to stand in a meadow or grass ground 
which is annually mowed. Sometimes we see them in 
door-yards, where the grass grows strong, but where nei- 
ther pigs, nor sheep, nor cattle, are allowed to enter. A 
half starved tree, however, is no ornament in front of a 
house ; but we will not find fault whhout proposing a 
remedy. Cultivate a circle round each tree, of two or 
three feet in diameter; and hoe in manure from the sta- 
ble, the hog-pen, the hen-roost, the leach-tub, or the wood 
pile, not forgetting the stove-pipe, and the tree will soon 
compensate for the labor by its beauty and productive- 
ness. 



ON 



THE CULTIVATION 



OF 



DYER'S MADDER; 



CURING 



PROVISIONS FOR THE ENGLISH MARKET; 



LARD OIL, HOPS, etc. btc. 



14 



CHAPTER IX, 



CULTIVATION OF DYER S MADDER. 



The quantity of madder consumed annually in the 
United States, and imported from abroad, is perfectly as- 
tonishing to those who have given no attention to the sub- 
ject. Unfortunately, our public records do not give very 
exact information on the subject ; but Mr. Ellsworth, as 
the nearest approximation he could obtain, gives the 
amount a.s five thousand tons f Estimating this at the low 
average price of ten cents per pound, it makes the round 
sum of one million of dollars paid annually to foreign 
countries for an article that can be produced as good and 
as cheap at home, were the information necessary to its 
production generally diffused among farmers and others 
interested in the subject. 

The cultivation of madder has heretofore been repre- 
sented as a tedious and laborious operation, requiring 
much care and skill, as well as outlay of capital. The 
directions have been mainly gathered from foreign works, 
detailing the methods practiced by the plodding Dutch in 
Holland and Germany. These accounts have appeared 
so frightful to Americans, that none of them have dared 
to undertake the business ; and Yankee enterprise and 
labor-saving ingentiity have never been exercised upon it. 

It is true, the crop requires three or four years to arrive 
at maturity, and needs considerable labor, and some 
knowledge ; but the quantity of land it occupies, and the 
amount of labor it requires, is far less in proportion to 
the value of the crop than those of any other farm-crop 
that can be named. 



316 THE farmer's and 

These assertions are fully corroborated by the experi- 
ence of an enterprising American farmer, Mr. Joseph 
Swift, of Erie county, Ohio, who has been engaged in the 
culture of madder for five years past. A detailed account 
of Mr. Swft's mode of culture and its results, was obtained 
at his residence last winter, by the writer of this essay, and 
published in the New Genesee Farmer for March, 1843. 

From this account it will be seen, that after having in- 
formed himself on the subject, and becoming satisfied that 
the business was practicable and profitable, he at once 
planted nine acres. This he allowed to grow four seasons, 
and the crop was harvested and sold in the fall of 1842. 
The following are some of the results of his experience. 
The product of his best land was at the rate of 2,000lbs. 
per acre, and he is certain that, with his present knowledge, 
he can obtain 3,000 lbs. per acre — which is more than 
the best average crops of Holland or Germany. The 
quality was superior to the average of imported madder. 

The labor required, including the whole time, with the 
digging, cleaning, threshing, etc. was from eighty to one 
hundred days' work per acre. The outlay for buildings, 
fixtures, etc. did not exceed, in all, fifty dollars. 

The value of the crop was at the rate of fifteen cents 
per pound, at which price he sold most of it — notwithstand- 
ing the circumstances of its being unknown to purchasers, 
and all the prejudice that usually exists in such cases. 

The result, then, in figures, fairly stated, stands thus, 
for an acre of good land properly managed : 

By 2,000 lbs. of madder, at 15 cents per lb* $300 00 

Contra — To 100 days' work, mostly boys, at 75 cts. per 

day $75 00 j 

Use of land, 4 years, at $4 per year 16 00 

Grinding, packing, etc 9 00 

100 00 

Leaving a nett profit per acre, of. $2( 00 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 317 

Mr. Swift was one of the earliest settlers of that section 
of the country, having resided nearly thirty years on the 
farm he now occupies, which consists of about 400 acres 
of choice land, mostly alluvial, in the valley of the Ver- 
million river, seven miles from Lake Erie. At my re- 
quest, he furnished me with the following practical direc- 
dons for the cultivation of madder, which he remarked 
must be understood as intended for those who wish to 
cultivate only a few acres, and cannot afford much outlay 
of capital. Those who wish to engage in the business on 
an extensive scale, would need to adopt a somewhat dif- 
ferent practice : 

Soil and preparation. — The soil should be a deep, rich, 
sandy loam, free from weeds, roots, stones, etc., containing 
a good portion of vegetable earth. Alluvial " bottom" 
land is the most suitable ; but it must not be wet. If old 
upland is used, it should receive a heavy coating of veg- 
etable earth, (from decayed wood and leaves.) The land 
should be ploughed very deep in the fall, and early in the 
spring apply about one hundred loads of well-rotted 
manure per acre, spread evenly, and ploughed in deeply ; 
then harrow till quite fine and free from lumps. Next, 
plough the land into beds four feet wide, leaving alleys be- 
tween, three feet wide, then harrow the beds with a fine 
light harrow, or rake them by hand so as to leave them 
smooth, and even with the alleys; they are then ready 
for planting. 

Preparing Sets and planting. — Madder sets, or seed 
roots, are best selected when the crop is dug in the fall. 
The horizontal uppermost roots (with eyes) are the kind 
to be used ; these should be separated from the bottom 
roots, and buried in sand in a cellar or pit. If not done 
in the fall, the sets may be dug early in the spring, before 
they begin to sprout. They should be cut or broken into 



318 ' THE FARMER S AJND 

pieces, containing from two to five eyes each ; i, e. three 
to four inches long. The time for planting is as early in 
spring as^ the ground can be got in good order, and severe 
frosts are over, which, in this climate, is usually about the 
middle of April. With the beds prepared as directed, 
stretch a line lengthwise the bed, and with the corner of 
a hoe make a drill two inches deep along each edge and 
down the middle, so as to give three rows to each bed, 
about two feet apart. Into these drills drop the sets, ten 
inches apart, covering them two inches deep. Eight or 
ten bushels of sets are requisite for an acre. 

After Culture. — As soon as the madder plants can be 
seen, the ground should be carefully hoed, so as to destroy 
the weeds, and not injure the plants ; and the hoeing and 
weeding must be repeated as often as weeds make their 
appearance. If any of the sets have failed to grow, the 
vacancies should be filled by taking up parts of the strong- 
est roots and transplanting them ; this is best done in June. 
As soon as the madder plants are ten or twelve inches 
high, the tops are to be bent down on the surface of the 
ground, and all except the tip end, covered with earth 
shoveled from the middle of the alleys. Bend the shoots 
outward and inward, in every direction, so as in time to 
fill all the vacant space on the beds, and about one foot 
on each side. After the first time covering, repeat the 
weeding when necessary, and run a single horse plough 
through the alleys several times to keep the earth clean 
and mellow. As soon as the plants again become ten or 
twelve inches high, bend down and cover them as before, 
repeating the operation as often as necessary, which is 
commonly three times the first season. The last time 
may be as late as" September, or later if no frosts occur. 
By covering the tops in this manner, they change to roots, 
and the design is to fill the ground as full of roots as possi- 
ble. When the vacant spaces are all full, there will be 



'HE emigrant's IIAND-BOOk'. ^19 

but little chance for weeds to grow ; but all that appear 
must be pulled out. 

The second year. — Keep the beds free from weeds,* 
plouojh the alleys and cover the tops, as before directed, two 
or three times during the season. The alleys will now 
form deep and narrow ditches, and if it becomes difficult 
to obtain good earth for covering the lops, that operation 
may be omitted after the second time this season. Care 
should be taken, when covering the tops, to keep the edges 
of the beds as high as the middle ; otherwise the water 
from heavy showers will run off, and the crop suffer from 
drought. 

The third year, — Very little labor or attention is re- 
quired. The plants will now cover the whole ground. 
If any v/eeds are seen, they must be pulled out ; otherwise 
their roots will cause trouble when harvesting the madder. 
The crop is sometimes dug the third year ; and if the soil 
and cultivation have been good, and the seasons warm 
and favorable, the madder will be of good quality ; but 
generally, it is much better in quality, and more in quan- 
tity, when left until the fourth year. 

Digging and Harvesting. — This should be done between 
the 20th of August and the 20th of September. Take a 
sharp shovel or shovels, and cut off and remove the tops 
with half an inch of the surface of the earth ; then take 
a plough of the largest size, with a sharp coulter and a 
double team, and plough a furrow outward, beam-deep, 
around the edge of the bed ; stir the earth with forks, and 
carefully pick out all the roots, removing the earth from 
the bottom of the furrow ; then plough another furrow beam- 
deep, as before, and pick over and remove the earth in 
the same manner: thus proceeding until the whole is 
completed. 

Washing and Drying. — As soon as possible after dig- 
ging, take the roots to some running stream to be washed. 



320 TH£ farmer's and 

If there is no running stream convenient, it can be done 
lit a pump. Take large, round sieves, 2J or 3 feet in 
diameter, with the wire about as fine as wheat sieves ; or 
if these cannot be had, get from a hardware store sufhcient 
screen-wire of the right fineness, and make frames or 
boxes about two and a half feet long and the \yidth of the 
wire, on the bottom of which nail the wire. In these 
sieves or boxes, put half a bushel of roots at a time and 
stir them about in the water, pulling the bunches apart 
so as to wash them clean ; then, having a platform at hand, 
lay them on it to dry. (To make the platform, take two 
or three common boards, so as to be about four feet in 
width, and nail elects across the under side.) On these 
spread the roots about two inches thick for drying in the 
sun. Carry the platforms to a convenient place, not far 
from the house, and place thern side by side, in rows east 
and west, and with their ends north and south, leaving 
room to walk between the rows. Elevate the south ends 
of the platforms about eighteen inches, and the north ends 
about six inches from the ground, putting poles or sticks 
to support them — this will greatly facilitate drying. After 
the second or third day drying, the madder must be pro- 
tected from the dews at night, and from rain, by placing 
the platforms one Upon another to a convenient height, 
and covering the uppermost one with boards. Spread 
them out again in the morning, or as soon as danger is 
over. Five or six days of ordinarily fine weather will dry 
the madder sufficiently, when it may be put away till it is 
convenient to kiln-dry and grind it. 

Kiln-drying, — The size and mode of constructing the 
kiln may be varied to suit circumstances. The following 
is a very cheap plan, and sufficient to dry one ton of roots 
at a time. Place four strong posts in the ground, twelve 
feet apart one way, and eighteen the other ; the front two 
fourteen feet high, and the others eighteen ; put girts across 



THE EBIIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 821 

the bottom, middle and top ; and nail boards perpendicu- 
larly on the outside as for a common barn. The boards 
must be well seasoned, and all cracks or holes should be 
plastered or otherwise stopped up. Make a shed-roof of 
common boards. In the inside, put upright standards about 
five feet apart, with cross-pieces, to support the scaffolding. 
The first cross-pieces to be four feet from the floor ; the 
next two feet higher, and so on to the top. On these cross- 
pieces, lay small poles about six feet long and two inches 
thick, four or five inches apart. On these scaffolds the 
madder is to be spread nine inches thick. A floor is laid 
at the bottom to keep all dry and clean. When the kiln 
is filled, take six or eight small kettles or hand-furnaces, 
and place them four or five feet apart on the floor, (first 
securing it from fire with bricks or stones,) and make fires 
in them with charcoal, being careful not to make any of 
the fires so large as to scorch the madder over them. A 
person must be in constant attendance to watch and re- 
plenish the fires. The heat will ascend through the 
whole, and in ten or twelve hours it will allbe sufficiently 
dried, which is known by its becoming brittle like pipe 
stems. 

Breaking and Grinding. — Immediately after being dried, 
the madder must be taken to the barn and threshed with 
flails, or broken by machinery, (a mill might easily be 
constructed for this purpose,) so that it will feed in a 
common grist-mill. If it is not broken and ground imme- 
diately, it will gather dampness so as to prevent its grind- 
ing freely. Any common grist-mill can grind madder 
properly. When ground finely it is fit for use, and may 
be packed in barrels like flour for market. 

Amount and value of Product, etc. — Mr. Swift mea- 
sured off* a part of his ground, and carefully weighed the 
product when dried, which he found to be over two thou- 
sand pounds per acre, notwithstanding the seasons were 
14* 



322 

mostly very dry and unfavorable. With his present 
knowledge of the business, he is confident that he can 
obtain at least three thousand pounds per acre, which is 
said to be more than is often obtained in Germany. The 
whole amount of labor he estimates at from eighty to one 
hundred days' work per acre. The value of the crop, 
at the usual wholesale price, (about fifteen cents per 
pound,) from three to four hundred dollars. In foreign 
countries it is customary to m-ake several qualities of the 
madder, which is done by sorting the roots ; but as only 
one quality is required for the western market, Mr. Swift 
makes but one, and that is found superior to most of the 
imported, and finds a ready sale. 



CHAPTER XI. 

COMMUNICATED BY C. T. PETERS, ESQ. 
CURING PROVISIONS FOR THE ENGLISH MARKET. 

The revision of the tariff upon provisions, by the Eng- 
lish government, will have a much more important bear- 
ing upon the agricultural interest of this country, than 
any, and indeed all the changes that could be safely made 
in their corn-laws. At present prices, even, without any 
change in the duty, both beef and pork could be sent to 
the English market at a profit, if it had been cured in the 
same manner, and put up in the same kind of packages, 
which has been so long the custom in that country. It is 
useless to expect a whole nation to change their customs 
to suit our views ; and if we would avail ourselves of 
their markets, we must conform to their customs and 
prejudices ; if the fixed and unchanging habits of a whole 
nation must be called so. 

Foreseeing that, at no distant day, the provision busi- 
ness must become the great business of this country, while 
in Europe, last winter, I endeavored to make myself per- 
fectly familiar with everything connected with the provi- 
sion trade. I visited the great curing and packing estab- 
lishments in Ireland, and made myself master of the whole 
subject of curing and packing provisions. I then visited 
the great markets of Europe, Liverpool and London, and, 
under the instruction of some of the oldest and most re- 
spectable provision merchants of those cities, endeavored 
to make myself thoroughly acquainted with everything 
relative to the wants and peculiar shades of the different 



324 THE farmer's and 

markets. While abroad, I gave you the result of my 
observations relative to butter and cheese. I now give 
you, in as condensed a form as possible, the best method 
of curing and preparing for the English market, beef and 
pork, and hope it will not be without interest and profit to 
your numerous readers, especially in the west and south- 
west. 

PORK. 

There are various kinds or divisions of pork — depend- 
ing upon the size and quality of the hog, and the market 
for which it is intended. There is bacon singed and 
scalded, which is divided into whole-side bacon or mid- 
dles. Barreled pork is divided into prime and bacon 
mess, and is put up into barrels and tierces. 

In some parts of England, they will not purchase or use 
scalded bacon ; in others, they make no difference. In 
this country, the market requires but one kind ; and there 
is but one kind that can be shipped to any profit, and that 
is known as tierce middles. 

Whole-side bacon is prepared by cutting out the chine 
or back-bone, cutting the head off as close at the ears as 
possible, and the legs at the knee-joint. The ribs are 
broken by passing a fine saw across them two or three 
times, the shoulder-blade taken out, and the whole side 
trimmed and made to look smooth and sightly. If it is 
from a heavy hog, the knife is run into the ham so as to 
enable the salt to penetrate readily to the knuckle-joint, 
and sometimes about the fore-shoulder. From the cut- 
ting-block, it is passed to the rubbing table. Here all 
the holes are filled with salt, and salt is spread freely 
over it, and rubbed in by men with a kind of iron glove 
upon their hands. After the salt has been well rubbed 
in, the sides are piled up on the floor, in layers of from six 
to ten deep, flesh side up, salt being freely put between 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 325 

each side. During the process of curing, the sides are 
repacked several times, depending upon the weather — 
sometimes every other day. In about ten days, the meat 
is sufficiently cured for market. The salt is brushed off 
clean with a twig broom ; the side again carefully trim- 
med, scraped, and smoothed down, by beating it with a 
flat board, and then passed to the baling or packing-room. 
Five sides are put together, and a thin layer of salt be- 
tween each, and then sewed up in a coarse kind of bag- 
ging manufactured for the purpose. In this condition, it 
is shipped for the London market ; and, with a little care, 
will keep in good order for months. Hams and shoulders 
are cured in the same manner, except some use saltpetre 
with the salt when first rubbed in. Many prefer their 
bacon and hams dried rather than smoked; but, when 
smoked, great care is taken to keep the meat of as white 
a color as possible. To do this well, the meat should be 
quite dry when hung up in the smoke. Competition is 
very keen among the Irish and Continental provision 
curers, and great skill is used to make the best article. 
Hence, the utmost pains are taken in curing and putting 
up their bacon, hams, and dried beef; and many of the 
most intelligent men in the country are among the pro- 
vision merchants of Ireland and Hamburgh. Tierce 
middles are the middle or broadside of the hog, between 
the ham and shoulder. It is cured in the same manner 
as the whole side, but, in preparing for the English mar- 
ket, I should recommend to put it up clear of all bone, 
and should therefore take out not only the chine, but all 
the ribs. It is put up in tierces holding about three hun- 
dred pounds, and treated the same as salted pork. 

A profitable trade might be carried on between west- 
ern New-York and the New-England States, during the 
fall and winter, in haled hacon, if freight could be carried 
over the Utica and Schenectady railroad, at reasonable 



326 THE farmer's and 

rates ; and we should not be compelled to keep our pork 
or beef on hand until the opening of navigation in the 
spring. 

Pork is cut into four or six-pound pieces, according to 
the size of the hog. Where the carcass weighs two hun- 
dred and fifty and under, it is cut into four-pound pieces ; 
large hogs are cut into six-pound pieces. The hog is 
first split through the back-bone in half; then passed to 
the trimming-block, where the half head and legs are cut 
off, the leaf and tender-loin taken out, and the whole side 
split lengthwise through both the shoulder and ham, and 
as near the centre as is consistent with the proper shape 
and size of the different pieces. From the trimming- 
block, the strips pass to the scales, where the weight is 
ascertained, and called to the man at the cutting-block, 
who divides each strip into the requisite sized pieces. 
Both the splitting and piercing require skill and judg- 
ment, as much depends upon having the pieces well and 
sizably cut. From thence it goes to the rubbing-table, 
where each piece is thoroughly rubbed in salt in the same 
manner as in curing bacon. After the salt has been 
well rubbed in, it is put into pickling tubs, holding from 
three to five hundred pounds, well covered with salt, but 
no water or brine added. Here they remain from eight 
to ten days. It is then taken to the washing trough or 
vat, where each piece is thoroughly washed in clean 
brine, trimmed, and tormented, as the process of trying is 
called. The tormentor is an instrument of wood or metal, 
the size of a small dish, and is thrust into the lean parts 
of each piece, to ascertain that it is properly cured and 
free from taint. It is then messed and weighed, so that 
the requisite number of pieces shall weigh exactly the 
number of pounds for the barrel or tierce. It is then put 
up in the proper package, and freely salted while packing, 
and saltpetre added at the rate of a common wine-glass 



THE EMI7Ri»NT's HAND-BOOK. ^ 327 

full to the one huncired pounds. The last layer is 
pounded in by a heavy iron weight, and capped with 
coarse salt. It is then passed to the cooper, who puts in 
the head, and puts on to the barrel one, and on to the 
tierce at least three iron hoops at each end. The pack- 
age is then filled with clean strong brine, bunged tight, 
branded, and is then ready for market. 

The great utility of this method of curing consists in 
the certainty of the meat keeping in good condition for 
years in any climate. The b^ood gets all drained out of 
the meat before it is barreled, and hence one great cause 
*of injury is avoided. I saw pork and beef which had 
been two years in the barrel, which was as sweet as 
when first put up, and the brine was perfectly clear. A 
friend in London unpacked several packages of Irish and 
Hamburgh cured provisions, by the side of American. 
The contrast was anything but flattering to our taste or 
skill. I could very readily see why our beef and pork 
bore so bad a name in the market, and was so much of a 
drug. The meat was not inferior, but it was badly 
messed, worse cut and cured, and the brine nearly as red 
as blood, and presenting, by the side of the other, not a 
very palatable appearance. The large hogs, or heavy 
pork, which is uniformly cut in six-pound pieces, is 
packed in tierces, and is then called India or navy porJc. 
The four-pound pieces are put in barrels. 

A barrel o^ prime pork should contain from twenty five 
to thirty pieces, cut from the ribs, loins, chines, and belly 
pieces, all lying between the ham and shoulder, forming 
what is called the broadside or middle. Three hands 
and two hind-leg pieces, or three hind-leg pieces and two 
hands, and fifteen or twenty pieces from other parts of 
the hog, except no part of the head. The meat must be 
of prime quality, firm, and well-fattened, cut into four- 
pound pieces, exactly fifty to the barrel, and weigh not 



828 THE FARMER S AND 

less than two hundred pounds nett, and must have a good 
capping of St. Ubes, or other coarse salt. This is indis- 
pensable. Bacon mess pork is so called when the full 
proportion of prime pieces in prime mess is withheld ; 
there is, therefore, various classes of bacon pork. Tier- 
ces contain the same number, that is, fifty pieces of six 
pounds, and the same rules as to messing are to be ob- 
served as in the barrel. The tierce must have not less 
than three hundred pounds, and well capped with salt. 
It is usual to put in fifty-two pieces. In bacon mess, the 
number of prime mess pieces should be marked upon the 
head. No part of the hog's head is allowed in any in- 
stance. 

BEEF 

Is uniformly cut into eight-pound pieces, and cured, in 
all particulars, precisely as pork, except a larger propor- 
tion of saltpetre is used in packing. Beef is almost en- 
tirely packed in tierces. For export, tierces only should 
be used, 

A tierce of prime India heef should contain forty-two 
pieces, eight pounds each, and weigh not less than three 
hundred and thirty- six pounds nett. It should be made 
from well-fed bullocks, and contain thirty-two pieces of 
loins, flanks, rumps, plates, buttocks, and briskets ; ten 
pieces, consisting of four chines, two mouse buttocks, two 
shells of rumps, two pieces cut close up to the neck, with 
bone taken out; no shins, thigh-bones, or necks. To be 
well salted, and capped with St. Ubes or other coarse 
salt. 

A tierce of prime Mess heef should contain thirty-eight 
pieces of eight pounds, and weigh not less than three 
hundred and four pounds nett. It should be made from 
prime fat cows or heifers, twenty-eight pieces of prime, 
from loins and chines, with one rib in each, flanks, rumpr, 



329 

plates, briskets, and buttocks, with ten coarse pieces, 
consisting of two neck-pieces, not the scrag, two thighs 
or buttock bones, with some meat to them, two shells of 
rumps, two or even four chines, not cut too close to the 
neck, and two shoulder pieces with part of blade bone in 
them, well salted and capped with St. Ubes or other 
coarse salt. The tierces, whether for beef or pork, must 
be made of well-seasoned oak, with eight wooden, and 
three iron hoops on each end. 

No pains to be spared in preparing and putting up, as 
the neat and tasty appearance of the packages will in- 
sure a more ready sale, than if put up in a slovenly 
manner. 

There is much that one cannot well make intelligible 
upon paper, and can only be learned by personal obser- 
vation. I have endeavored to communicate enough to 
enable any experienced butcher or packer to prepare pro- 
visions for a foreign market, if desirous to do so ; and the 
method described is the one in general use in Europe, 
and, if adopted in this country, will enable us to enter the 
English market in successful competition with the Con- 
tinent. I trust the season will not pass, without finding 
several establishments preparing and curing provisions 
according to the Irish method. 

T. C. PETERS. 

Darien, Genesee, Co., Now- York. 



CHAPTER XII. 



LARD OIL, ETC. 



Much interest has been felt in the subject of oil from 
lard, and the almost daily inquiries respecting its process 
of manufacture, and its close connection with the question 
of disposing of our agricultural products, forms a reason 
for giving it an extended consideration.' Complete suc- 
cess has attended the enterprise. Several large factories 
for the manufacture of this oil, have been some time in 
operation in Cincinnati, and thousands of gallons are daily 
prepared for home consumption and exportation. It is 
also carried on at Cleveland, Ohio ; Chicago, Illinois ; 
Burlington, Iowa ; Hannibal, Missouri ; and other places 
both in the Western and the Atlantic states. 

It is considered much superior to olive or sperm oil, for 
machinery, and for the manufacture of woollens, etc. 
It can be furnished also at half the price, and therefore it 
will doubtless supersede the article of import. As it con- 
tains less gelatine than other oils, it is found much better 
for combing wool. Repeated experiments, too, have shown 
that for the purpose of combustion, no oil is superior. It 
is important, in trying it with this view, to obtain a good 
article, manufactured from good lard, and not from the 
dark-burned, which creates smoke and clogs the flame. 
For want of sufficient care in this respect, some have no 
doubt met with disappointment in their attempts to substi- 
tute this oil for sperm oil in the lamps. 

The following are given as the relative constituents or 
lard oil and sperm oil, in one hundred parts of either : 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 331 

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 

Lard oil 79.03 11.422 9.548 

Spermoil 79.05 11.6 8.9 

It will thus be seen that the difference in carbon is only 
3.00 ; about the same in hydrogen ; while in oxygen it 
is about 4.10 in favor of the lard oil. The large quanti- 
ty of carbon proves that it may be relied on as a material 
for giving light, as it is well ascertained that whenever 
carbon predominates in an animal oil the article is capable 
of a high degree of luminous power. Experiments have 
been made which resulted in favor of lard oil. About 
sixty pounds in a hundred of good lard, in tallow, only 
twenty-eight is oil ; and the processes of manufacture re- 
sorted to, show that it may be made a profitable business. 
Large orders have already been executed at the West for 
this oil, to be used in the Eastern states. 

The importance of this application of lard, can scarcely 
yet be realized. Vast quantities of the oil can be manu- 
factured at the West. Indeed, there is hardly any as- 
signable limit to the power of production of the article, 
so that, while the demand continues, the business may be 
conducted profitably. The immense herds of swine which 
can be suffered to range over the lands adapted to them, 
and gather their food from mast, as well as the surplus of 
corn, wheat, potatoes, etc., on which they may be sus- 
tained, admit of the manufacture being carried on to al- 
most any extent. 

The proportion of lard to the whole hog is about sixty 
per cent., after taking out the hams and shoulders, or tak- 
ing out the hams only ; the estimate for hogs of the best 
breeds, and so fed as to produce the greatest quantity of 
fat, is seventy per cent. As the object is not in this case 
to make pork for food, the objection against those species 
of nuts, and other modes of feeding, which render the an- 
imal more gross and oily, is obviated ; and it has been 



832 THE farbier's and 

proposed to feed out oil cake to swine, to increase the pro- 
portion of oil. 

By the new process of steanaing, (a very simple method, 
a description of which is given below,) it appears that the 
whole of the lard, or oily matter in the hog, or of tallow 
in cattle, may be obtained ; while the danger of burning, 
(common in other modes,) is avoided, the consumption of 
fuel lessened, and the degree of pressure required not so 
great as otherwise. It will be recollected that, while 
conducting the manufacture of the lard, the other parts of 
the animal, as the hams and shoulders, may be turned to 
profit. Besides these, also, the hides may be tanned by a 
cheap process ; and the bones, which are worth half a 
cent per pound, may be calcined and made into animal 
carbon, for which they are said to be worth, in this cal- 
cined state, two and a half cents per pound. 

There i.s a great difference in hogs, as to their frame 
and the kind of food they have been fattened upon. The 
average Ohio hogs (common breed,) will produce, when 
tried by steam, fifty per centum lard, after deducting the 
hams and shoulders. The plan now generally adopted 
is, not to take out the shoulders ; the sale for them is 
limited, and price low ; the covering of fat will produce 
more in lard, than the expense of curing would warrant. 
The mixture of the China and BerksTiires, fed upon po- 
tatoes or any other vegetable containing starch as a prin- 
cipal food, would produce, when very fat, at least seventy 
per centum, after taking out only the hams. 

The steaming apparatus is merely a tub with a false 
bottom, perforated with holes, lying about two inches 
above the bottom. The steam is introduced between the 
two bottoms, and so entirely separates the fat from the 
cells in which it was inclosed, that no pressing of scraps 
is necessary. The bones, lean, and scrap, are left on 
the false bottom, and the lard floats on the surface. With 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 333 

steam, at a pressure of five pounds to the inch, it will re- 
quire from eighteen to twenty hours to try off a tubfull of 
any given quantity, steam in proportion of course ; sixty 
pounds pressure would do it in one-third the time. The 
great advantage of steam is, the whole of the lard or tal- 
low is produced, and there is no danger of burning either. 

The quality of the lard is good, but not equal to leaf 
lard or suet ; the carcass fat does not contain as much 
of the concrete principle, (stearin.) Whole hog lard 
cannot be refined and made hard without a portion of the 
oil is extracted. I take from twenty to forty per centum 
of the oil ; then the balance goes through several wash- 
ings in pure rain-water by steam, after which it is refined 
lard. The expense is not more than one quarter cent 
per pound, but it is of more value to us than common lard, 
as we have a great deal of trouble and expense with it ; 
and in only extracting a portion of the oil, we would lose 
by it, did it not command a better price in the market, 
which it should from its purity. 

The custom has been to decompose the lard in acid and 
neutral salts. When the affinity between the parts is de- 
stroyed, separate them by means of canvas bags placed 
in powerful screw presses. If you wish to make candles 
of the residue, the pressure is continued until all the oil, 
by this means, is forced out. The contents of the bags 
are then subjected to the action of a powerful hydraulic 
press, and the stearin pressed to dryness. 

To produce the winter oil, expose the decomposed lard 
to the cold, in the same manner that the crude sperm oil 
undergoes to produce the winter-strained oil. Upon an- 
alysis, it is found that the lard oil contains 79 2-10 car- 
bon, and pure sperm oil, 79 5-10 ; making three-tenths 
of one per centum difference ; the other equivalent of 
hydrogen and oxygen are the same, excepting the differ- 
ence of the three-tenths. For all uses, (excepting paint- 



3IH THE farmer's and 

ing,) lard oil has no equal. It burns with a strong white 
light, and is entirely free from either smoke or smell. 
It does not contain any gelatine, which makes it a prefer- 
able article for all kinds of machinery ; for wood it an- 
swers better than the olive oil, which it has superseded 
entirely. The oil of tallow is also well adapted for ma- 
chinery ; for burning it is not preferable to other oil, on 
account of its odor. Tallow only contains about twenty- 
eight per centum of oil, whereas lard contains on the av- 
erage sixty-two. The stearin of both lard and tallow 
makes a better and harder candle then sperm, and the 
same amount in weight produces a great deal more light. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

HOPS. 

The Soil. — The hop is planted on various soils, and 
chiefly in valleys. They are generally of the best qual- 
ity on strong clay land : the crop, however, there is very 
^)recarious. Those on peat are much more productive ; 
but are liable to be affected by the mould in some seasons, 
which reduces their value considerably. The best plan- 
tations are on a deep loamy soil, where the produce of 
the latter and the quality of the former are sometimes ob- 
tained. Those which are grown on sandy and gravelly 
lands, are seldom remarkable for either great produce or 
quality. The best situation for a plantation is a southern 
aspect, well shaded on three sides either by hills or tim.- 
ber. 

Manuring. — In the winter, the manure should be pro- 
vided for the hop-ground fo>* the following spring. If the 
dung be rotten, mix with two or three parts of common 
earth, and let it incorporate together till there is occasion 
to use it in making the hop hills ; but if it be new dung, 
then let it be mixed as before till the spring in the next 
year, for new dung is very injurious to hops. Hops re- 
quire to be planted in a situation so open, that the air may 
freely pass between and round them to dry up and dissi- 
pate the moisture, which often destroys the middle of large 
plantations, while the outsides remain unhurt. The hills 
should be seven or eight feet apart . If the ground be 
intended to be ploughed with horses between the hills, it 
will be best to plant them in squares, chequerwise ; but 



336 THE FARMER S AND 

if the ground is so small that it may be done with a breast 
plough, the hills should be arranged in a quincunx form 
— whichsoever way is made use of, a stake should be 
stuck down at all the places where the hills are to be 
made. 

The kind of Hops. — As to the kind of hops, it is necessa- 
ry to pay some attention ; for if the hop garden be plant- 
ed with a mixture of several sorts of hops, that ripen 
at several times, it will cause much trouble, and great 
inconvenience. The two best sorts are the white and gray 
kind. The latter is a large square hop ; more hardy ; 
bears more abundantly ; but ripens later than the former. 
There is another sort of the white kind, which ripens a 
week or ten days sooner than the former : but this is a 
tenderer and less plentiful bearer ; though it has this ad- 
vantage, that it comes first to market. If there be a sort 
of hop that is valued and wanted to be increased, the su- 
perfluous binds should be laid down when the hops are 
tied, cutting off the tops, and burying them in the hill ; or 
when the hops are dressed all the cuttings may be saved ; 
for almost every part will grow and become a good set 
the next spring. 

Planting. — The time for planting hops in Kent, Sussex, 
and Hertfordshire, England, the greatest hop countries in 
the world, is either October or March. In Northern Illi- 
nois, for the spring, early in April will be soon enough, 
as they do not start so soon ; but the vegetation is more 
rapid, and will come to maturity sooner here than the 
other side the Atlantic. The better time to plant is the 
spring ; and the cuttings can be procured when the hops 
are dressed. As to the manner of planting the sets, there 
should be five good sets to every hill, one in the middle, 
and the rest round about sloping. Let them be pressed I 
close with the hand, and covered with fine earth ; a i 
stick should be placed on each side of the hill to secure it. 



THE EMTGRANt's HAND-BOOK. 337 

But to form a new plantation, the best method is to have 
the cuttings from approved stock, planted out the year be 
fore they are wanted, in the hop ground ; as the use of 
plants instead of cuttings, not only gains a year, but they are 
more certain to flourish. A small piece of moist land is 
sufficient to raise plants for many acres, and at a little ex- 
pense. If the ground be new, thoroughly subdue it previous 
to planting. Work the land with a spade, and set it out 
into ridges three and a half yards wide, and two yards be- 
tween each. Three rows of plants, or as they are termed 
hills, are made upon each ridge, which should intersect 
each other. They are generally two yards distant in the 
rows ; so that about thirteen hundred are the usual num- 
be of hills in a statute acre. 

Poling. — Small sticks are proper to tie the binds up to, 
the first year ; then small poles for a year or two ; the 
size of which should be gradually increased. Some set 
two poles to every hill, which is proper for ground pro- 
ducing a luxuriant growth ; but on clay land, three poles 
should be set in a triangular form to the hills, on the outside 
rows of each ridge, and only two in the middle row. Ma- 
ny additional poles, longer than the rest, catch-poles, are 
also set up to take the binds as they run beyond the les- 
sor poles. Where the bind is weak, three heads are com- 
monly trained up each pole ; though two are better if 
strong. 

Cleaning the ground. — If the ground intended for a new 
plantation is not clear from couch-grass and weeds, a com- 
plete fallow is essential, whether it is grass or stubble ; 
and a crop of turnips may be taken to advantage, if the 
land be proper for their growth, and can be made clean, 
as the hops will be planted in the spring. 

15 



GLANCE AT THE 



CONSTITUTION 



OF THE 



UNITED STATES. 



ETC. ETC. ETC. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

A GLANCE AT THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC. 

It will be both interesting and useful to the emigrant, 
to have at hand a simple abstract of some of the leading 
facts concerning the government of the country, which he 
intends to make his home. We will, therefore, devote a 
chapter or two to this end. 

The New World was discovered by Christopher Colum- 
bus, in 1492. The inhabitants were a race of people to 
whom the name of Indians was given. The origin of 
tnese people is uncertain. Some suppose that they came 
from Asia ; that they crossed the narrow straits which 
separate Asia from America, called Behrings Straits. 
However this may be, the Indian race was in possession 
o.f the New World. 

Spain took possession of much of the southern territory, 
such as the West-India Islands, Mexico, Peru, and other 
regions. France soon took possession of the country on 
Ine St. Lawrence river ; and England, of many valua- 
ble parts of the country now included within the United 
States. 

This territory, which had been taken from the Indian 
race, soon began to be colonized. In 1607, a band of 
English emigrants took possession of that large tract of 
country, which lies between what is now called North 
Carolina and New Brunswick ; a pretty fair slice to be- 
gin with, it must be admitted. This tract was afterward 
divided into smaller districts, and settled by English emi- 
grants. 



342 THE farmer's and 

New- York was settled in 1613, by emigrants from 
Holland, but in 1644, it become an English colony. 

New-England was settled in 1620, by a hardy band 
of emigrants, most appropriately called Pilgrims. At 
the dead of winter, in a small and leaky vessel called the 
Mayflower, they breasted their way across the ocean, and 
landed late in December on the iron-bound shores of New- 
England. They found nothing but a wilderness, and a 
race of Indians to welcome their arrival. Here they had 
to build houses, subdue the forest and turn it into fields, 
and to form a government. Suffering from hunger, cold, 
hostile Indians, and sickness, they had well nigh perish- 
ed ; but the noble band of Pilgrim emigrants endured 
all these -things, and helped to lay the foundation of a 
nation. 

The rest of the Atlantic coast, was soon afterward taken 
possession of by colonies ; Maryland, in 1634 ; New-Jer- 
sey, in 1664 ; Pennsylvania, in 1684 ; North Carolina, 
between 1640 and 1650 ; South Carolina, in 1670 ; Geor- 
gia, in 1732 ; Delaware, in 1627. 

It is thus seen that Emigrants performed the first great 
acts in settling the New World. Among these early 
emigrants, were men of various religious creeds, and 
various nations. The Puritan, the Roman Catholic, the 
Church-of-England man, the Quaker, all came over to 
advance their religion. The English, the French, the 
Dutch, all were found in the different colonies ; even 
Sweden and Finland had their hand in the great work of 
colonizing America, Delaware having been settled by 
a company of Swedes and Finns in the year 1627. 

These peculiar features in the early settlement of the 
New World are full of interest, and are without a paral- 
lel in history. 

We will pass over the early struggles of these infant 
colonies, until the year 1776. How much they suffered 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 343 

no one can tell. That their sufferings were of the se- 
verest kind, cannot be doubted. Great, therefore, is the 
debt which the present age owes to the hardy emigrants 
who came into the wilderness at that early day. 

In 1776, there were thirteen colonies, founded by dif- 
ferent nations, and under different laws ; though they had 
all come under the jurisdiction of Great Britian. On her 
they depended, and called her the mother country. 

Troubles of various kinds sprung up between the col- 
onies and the mother country, of which it is not neces- 
sary here to speak. These troubles increased, until the 
thirteen colonies, on the fourth of July, 1776, resolved to 
be independent; and to constitute a Nation of them- 
selves. 

This led to a war of eight years duration, called the 
War of the Revolution. It resulted in the independence 
of the colonies, which thenceforward took their place 
among the nations of the earth, as the United States of 
America. ' 

A continental Congress was now formed by the united 
action of the several States, and articles of confederation 
were adopted. This was in 1777. Maryland did not 
agree to these articles till 1781. 

In 1787, the present Constitution of the United States 
was adopted, to which we will now turn. 

Before doing so, however, it may be well to observe, 
that there are now thirty States in the Union, each one of 
which has its own peculiar laics for certain purposes, while, 
for other purposes, it permits the General Congress to make 
laws for it. 

Each State is perfectly independent of every other State, 
excepting in certain matters, which they have all agreed 
shall be in common. What these matters are, that ar€ to 
be in common, we shall briefly mention at the proper time. 



344 THE farmer's and 

It is important that the emigrant fully understand this 
general idea, and we will illustrate it as follows : 

We will suppose that thirty men wish to join their 
means and their knowledge together, to accomplish a 
certain end : to open a coal mine, for instance. Each of 
these men, we will say, has a family of children, a wife 
and servants. 

They meet together, to lay plans to open and work the 
coal mine. It becomes necessary, of course, that they 
should have some written agreement among themselves, 
so as to know what each man's duty is, and what share 
of the profits and losses is to fall to each. It is very evi- 
dent that, without such an understanding at the outset, 
great trouble might arise, and the rights of the weaker 
be trampled upon by the stronger. 

It is also evident, that this written agreement should 
only refer to the interests of the particular business the 
thirty men are entering upon — ^namely, the opening of 
the coal mine. Their other business, whatever it might 
be, would not be included in the provisions of this coal 
mining agreement ; nor would the education of their 
children, the management of their families, or anything 
except that which had a clear connection with the interests 
of mining. 

Suppose that, after a while, some one of the thirty should 
propose to interfere in the private affairs of another of the 
thirty, and should propose to the company that they take 
a vote on the subject. What would be the course of the 
man whose private matters were thus interfered with ? To 
tell the com'pany to look at the written articles of agreement, 
and see if that gave them any right thus to interfere. This 
would settle the matter at once. Thus it is with the sev- 
eral States of the Union. 

The thirteen original States, having certain important 
objects of mutual interest to secure, such as defending the 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 345 

nation against a foreign enemy, and the like, agreed upon 
a sort of partnership; and entered into a written agree- 
ment, or understanding, on the subject. This written 
agreement is called the Constitution of the United States. 
Whatever is clearly written down in this agreement, as 
belonging to the United States to make laws upon, the Con- 
gress of the United States has a right to manage. What- 
ever is not written down, or plainly implied, is left entirely 
to the individual States ; and Congress has no more right 
to meddle with it, than have the majority of those who 
compose the coal-mining company, to meddle with the pri- 
vate affairs of one of the members of the company. 

The thirty States are like the thirty men in the coal 
company : each has a right to manage its own affairs, in 
its own way, by its own Legislature. The General Gov- 
ernment has the right to meddle with such matters only as 
are plainly laid down in the Constitution. 

We are thus particular in elucidating this*idea, as it 
is one to which the emigrant is not accustomed. 

The General Government, by the terms of the written 
Constitution, has the power — 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, 
to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and 
general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, im- 
posts, and excises, shall be uniform throughout the United 
States : 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States : 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among 
the several States, and with the Indian tribes : 

To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and 
uniform laws on the sul^ject of bankruptcies, throughout 
the United States : 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of for- 
eign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures : 
15* 



346 THE farmer's and 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the 
securities and current coin of the United Slates : 

To establish post-offices and post-roads : 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, 
by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, 
the exclusive right to their respective writings and dis- 
coveries : 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the%supreme court : 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed 
on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations : 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, 
and make rules concerning captures on land and water : 

To raise and support armies ; but no appropriations of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two 
years : 

To provide and maintain a navy : 

To make rules for the government and regulation of 
the land an'ci naval forces : 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the 
laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel in- 
vasions : 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining 
the militia, and for governing such parts of them as may 
be employed in the service of the United States, reserving 
to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, 
and the authority of training the militia according to the 
discipline prescribed by Congress : 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatso- 
ever, over such district, (not exceeding ten miles square,) 
as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance 
of Congress, become the seat of the Government of the 
United States, and to exercise like authority over all 
places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the 
States in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 347 

magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful build- 
ings : 

The Constitution of the United States is, therefore, a 
most important document,' and it should be read and un- 
derstood by every emigrant. 

The laws of the United States, made in pursuance of 
the Constitution, are enacted by the 

CONGRESS, 

which meets annually, on the first Monday in December, 
at Washington. This body is divided into two houses, 
the Senate and the House of Representatives. 

The senators are chosen for six years, and must be 
thirty years old before they be elected. There are two 
senators for each State, be the State large or small. 

The members of the House of Representatives must be 
twenty-five years old. They are chosen for two years 
by the people of the States they represent. At the present 
time there are two hundred and twenty-seven representa- 
tives ; one being chosen for every 70,680 inhabitants. 

The pay of the members of both houses is eight dollars 
a day while Congress is in session. 

OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The President is the chief. He is elected for four 
years, at a salary of twenty-five thousand dollars a year. 
He is commander-in-chief of the army, the navy, and 
the militia of the United States. His duty is, to see that 
all the laws are faithfully executed. He also appoints 
the chief officers of the army, navy and customs. 

He is assisted by several persons called secretaries, 
(termed ministers in Europe,) namely : 

The Secretary of State, whose duty it is to manage 
all the business with foreign Governments ; to give in- 



348 THE farmer's and 

structions to foreign embassadors and consuls ; to treat 
with the embassadors from other powers, who reside at 
the seat of government. 

The Secretary of the Treasury takes care of the 
whole monetary affairs of the government. It is his duty 
to see that the revenue is collected ; the customs properly 
managed ; the light-house system maintained ; the avails 
of the public lands legitimately applied, &;c. He must 
also look forward, and see that no deficiency of funds 
takes place, and devise plans to keep up the credit and 
resources of the nation. 

The Secretary of the Home Department attends to 
certain portions of business heretofore transacted in the 
State, Treasury, and War Departments ; among which, it 
is proposed to embrace those branches connected with the 
Patent and Land Offices, the Indian Bureau, and all other 
matters immediately relating to internal affairs. This 
department was created at the last session of the Thirtieth 
Congress, and its duties have not been so clearly defined 
as to warrant the giving of minute particulars. 

The Secretary of War has charge of the affairs of 
the army, and directs its general operations. He has also 
heretofore attended to negotiations with the Indians. 

The Secretary of the Navy has charge of naval 
affairs generally : such as building and equipping vessels 
of war, planning voyages for them, and seeing that proper 
discipline and skill are kept up throughout the navy. The 
navy is composed of about one hundred vessels of various 
kinds, including several war-steamers, employing some ten 
thousand individuals, at an annual expense of nearly eight 
millions of dollars. 

The Postmaster General has the charge of the mail 
service of the entire country, which is a most arduous 
business. His salary is the same as that of the Secretaries 
of Departments, six thousand dollars. The whole extent 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 349 

of all the post routes is about one hundred and sixty-five 
thousand miles. 

The Attorney General, whose salary is four thousand 
dollars, exclusive of fees, is also a member of the Cabinet ; 
and, besides attending to certain legal matters of the gov- 
ernment, it is his duty to give an opinion on questions of 
law whenever required by the executive. 

The annual expenses of the Government average about 
twenty-five millions of dollars ; but owing to the payment 
of interest on the public debt, and other temporary demands 
on the treasury, they are at present one-third more than 
the ordinary amount. Three-quarters of this is obtained 
by duties on imposts, and most of the balance by the sale 
of public lands. 

THE PUBLIC LANDS 
Are interesting to the emigrant for a variety of reasons. 
They offer to the millions of the Old World, in the present 
and future generations, a home of plenty. The lands are 
generally fertile, and vast quantities of them situated on 
navigable waters. In another place, (p. 352,) the laws 
regulating their purchase and sale will be found. The 
United States own upwards of one thousand millions of 
acres, which will form a certain income for ages. 

POLITICAL PARTIES. 
There are two leading parties in the United States, at 
present known by the names of Democrat and Whig. 
These parties are pretty nearly balanced ; sometimes one 
elects the President, and sometimes the other. This 
equality of strength is a great blessing to the country, for 
if the party in power conduct improperly, the majority 
can soon be influenced to turn against it. 



CHAPTER XV. 

NATURALIZATION AND PRE-EMPTION LAWS. . 

The following summary of the naturalization and pre- 
emption laws of the United States, will be found useful to 
the emigrant. 

Foreigners who are not naturalized, may reside in the 
United States, and are entitled to the same protection of 
life, liberty, and property, as native citizens are. They 
may transact any business they choose, and are subject 
to no disabilities in their occupations, on account of their 
being aliens. They are protected in the exercise and 
enjoyment of their religion, no matter of what creed they 
may be. They may rent lands, houses, and other pro- 
perty, but in many States they cannot become owners in 
fee of the soil until they are naturalized. This is not a 
very great objection, however, as they can take lands on 
long leases, extending through their lifetime, and beyond 
it. On becoming naturalized, they can hold land in fee, 
the same as native citizens. 

Any free white person may become naturalized. In 
order to be so, he must take the following steps : 

First. He must apply to the circuit or district court of 
the United States, or to any court of record of any indi- 
vidual State. This application must be made at least 
two years before he is admitted to citizenship. He must 
declare an oath or affirmation, 

" That it is bona fide his intention to become a citizen of the United 
States, and to renounce for ever all allegiance and fidelity to every 
foreign prince, potentate, state or sovereignty whatsoever, and par- 
ticularly, by name, the prince, potentate, state or sovereignty whereof 
such alien may at the time be a citizen or subject." 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 351 

Second. At the expiration of these two years, he may- 
apply for his certificate of citizenship, when he will have 
to make oath or affirm, 

" That he will support the ConstiliUion of the United States, and 
that he does absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance 
and fidelity to every foreign prince, potentate, state or sovereignty 
whatsoever ; and particulqa-ly , by name, the prince, potentate, state or 
sovereignty whereof he was before a citizen or subject.*^ 

It is necessary to remark, however, that a two year's 
residence in the United States is not sufficient to entitle an 
alien to citizenship. He must have resided in the United 
States Jive years ; but it is not necessary to make known 
his wish to become a citizen, until two years before the 
expiration of the five. 

Before granting the certificate, the court will require 
proof that the alien has resided in the country five years, 
stating the place or places of his residence ; and one of 
the five years in the State or territory where he applies 
for naturalization. 

If the applicant shall have borne any hereditary title 
or order of nobility, he must formally renounce such ; he 
must also be a person of good moral character. 

After he receives his certificate, he enjoys the full im- 
munities of native citizens ; he can vote, hold office, own 
land in fee, etc. etc. He is not eligible, however, 

1. To the office of President of the United States. 

2. To the office of Vice President of the United States. 

3. To the office of Governor in New- York, and several 
other States in the Union. 

PRE-EMPTION RIGHTS, OR THE RIGHT OF PURCHASING BE- 
FORE OTHERS. 

The jJnited States Government owns, at the present 
time, as we have said, about one thousand millions of 



352 THE FARMER S AND 

acres of wild lands ; situated in many of the States and 
Territories. The price at which these lands are sold, is 
one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre. 

In various places at the West, and elsewhere, there are 
government land-offices, at which the purchaser must ap- 
ply to transact any business he may have relative to this 
matter. It is not necessary to name the localities of tne 
various land-offices, as the settler will readily ascertain 
which is the one to which he should go. 

Under certain circumstances, which it is not necessary 
that we should name here, settlers may take possession of I 
certain vacant government lands. As this is a subject: 
of great interest to Western settlers, we subjoin the law 
which regulates it, together with the forms necessary to 
be observed in making application as a preemptor. 

This law, it will be perceived, has been in operation! 
several years, and has been found generally satisfactory 
to all parties. Since its passage, it has undergone some 
slight modifications, chiefly for temporary purposes, but its 
principal provisions remain unaltered. , 

AN ACT TO GRANT PRE-EMPTION RIGHTS. ' 

Sec. 10. And be it farther enacted, That from and after the pas- 
sage of this act, every person, being the head of a family, or widow, or 
single man, over the age of tvi^enty-one years, and being a citizen of 
the United States, or having filed his declaration of intention to become 
a citizen as required by the naturalization laws, who, since the first day 
of June, A. D. eighteen hundred and forty, has made, or shall hereafter 
make, a settlement in person on the public lands to which the Indian 
title had been, at the time of such settlement, extinguished, and whicl 
has been, or shall have been surveyed prior thereto, and who shall in- 
habit and improve the same, and who has or shall erect a dwelling 
thereon, shall be, and is hereby authorized to enter with the registei 
of the land-office for the district in which such land may lie, by lega: 
subdivisions, any number of acres not exceeding one hundred and sixty i 
or a quarter section of land, to include the residence of si'ch rlaimant 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 863 

upon paying the United States the minimum price of such land, subject, 
however, to the following limitations and exceptions : No person shall 
be entitled to more than one pre-emptive right by virtue of this act ; 
no person who is the proprietor of three hundred and twenty acres of 
land in any State or Territory of the United States, and no person who 
shall quit or abandon his residence on his own land to reside on the 
public land in the same State or Territory, shall acquire any right of 
pre-emption under this act ; no lands included in any reservation by 
any treaty, law, or proclamation of the President of the United States, 
or reserved for salines, or for other purposes ; no lands reserved for the 
support of schools, nor the lands acquired by either of the two last 
treaties with the Miami tribe of Indians, in the State of Indiana, 
or which may be acquired of the Wyandot tribe of Indians in the 
State of Ohio, or other Indian reservation to which the title has been 
or may be extinguished by the United States at any time during the 
operation of this act ; no sections of land reserved to the United States 
alternate to other sections granted to any of the States for the con- 
struction of any canal, railroad, or other public improvement ; no sec- 
tions or fractions of sections included within the limits of an incorpo- 
rated town ; no portions of the public lands which have been selected 
as the site for a city or town ; no parcel or lot of land actually settled 
and occupied for the purposes of trade and not agriculture ; and no 
lands on which are situated any known salines or mines, shall be Uable 
to entry under and by virtue of the provisions of this act. And so 
much of the proviso of the act of twenty-second of June, eighteen 
hundred and thirty-eight, or any order of the President of the United 
States, as directs certain reservations to be made in favor of certain 
claims under the treaty of Dancing-rabbit creek, be, and the same is 
hereby, repealed ; Provided, That such repeal shall not affect any title 
to any tract of land secured in virtue of said treaty. 

Sec. 11. And be it further enacted, That when two or more persons 
shall have settled on the same quarter section of land, the right of pre- 
emption shall be in him or her who made the first settlement, provided 
such persons shall conform to the other provisions of this act ; and all 
questions as to the right of pre-emption arising between different set- 
tlers, shall be settled by the register and receiver of the district within 
which the land is situated, subject to an appeal to and a revision by the 
Secretary of the Treasury of the United States. 

See. 12. And be it further enacted, That prior to any entries being 
made under and by virtue of the provisions of this act, proof of the 
settlement and improvement thereby required, shall be made to the 



354 THE FARMER S AND 

satisfaction of the register and receiver of the land district in which 
such lands may lie, agreeably to such rules as shall be prescribed by 
the Secretary of the Treasury, who shall each be entitled to receive 
fifty cents from each applicant for his services to be rendered as afore- 
said ; and all assignments and transfers of the right hereby secured 
prior to the issuing of the patent, shall be null and void. 

Sec. 13. And be it further enacied,That before any person claiming 
the benefit of this act shall be allowed to enter such lands, he or she 
shall make oath before the receiver or register of the land district in 
which the land is situated, (who are hereby authorized to administer 
the same,) that he or she has never had the benefit of any right of pre. 
emption under this act ; that he or she is not the owner of three hun- 
dred and twenty acres of land in any State or Territory of the United 
States, nor hath he or she settled upon and improved said land to sell 
the same on speculation, but in good faith to appropriate it to his or 
her own exclusive use or benefit ; and that he or she has not, directly 
or indirectly made any agreement or contract, in any way or manner, 
with any person or persons whatsoever, by which the title which he or 
she might acquire from the Government of the United States, should 
enure in whole or in part, to the benefit of any person except himself 
or herself; and if any person taking such an oath shall swear falsely in 
the premises, he or she shall be subject to all the pains and penalties of 
perjury, and shall forfeit the money which he or she may have paid for 
said land, and all right and title to the same ; and any grant or con- ^ 
veyance which he or she may have made, except in the hands of bona I 
fide purchasers, for a valuable consideration, shall be null and void, i 
And it shall be the duty of the officer administering such oath, to file ; 
a certificate thereof in the pubUc land-office of such district, and to i 
transmit a duplicate copy to the General Land Ofliice, either of which S 
shall be good and sufficient evidence that such oath was administered* 
according to law. 

Sec. 14. And be it further enacted, That this act shall not delay the 
sale of any of the public lands of the United States beyond the time 
which has been, or may be, appointed by the proclamation of the Presi- 
dent, nor shall the provisions of this act be available to any person or 
persons who shall fail to make the proof and payment, and file the af- 
fidavit required before the day appointed for the commencement of the 
sales as aforesaid. 

Sec. 15. And be it further enacted, That whenever any person has 
settled or shall settle and improve a tract of land, subject at the time of 
settlement to private entry, and shall intend to purchase the same un- 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 355 

der the provisions of this act, such person shall in the first case, within 
three months after the pasage of the same, and in the last within thirty 
days next after the date of such settlement, file with the register of the 
proper district a written statement describing the land settled upon, and 
declaring the intention of such person to claim the same under the 
provisions of this act ; and shall, where such settlement is already made, 
within twelve months after the passage of this act, and where it shall 
hereafter be made, within the same period after the date of such set- 
tlement, make the proof affidavit, and payment herein required ; and 
if he or she shall fail to file such written statement as aforesaid, or shall 
fail to make such affidavit, proof, and payment, within the twelve 
months aforesaid, the tract of land so settled and improved shall be 
subject to the entry of any purchaser. 
Approved, September 4, 1841. 

FORMS FOR BUSINESS AT THE LAND OFFICES. 

AFFIDAVIT REQUIRED OF PRE-EMPTION CLAIMANTS. 

FORM A. 

I A. B, claiming the right of pre-emption under the provisions of 
the act of Congress, entitled " An act to appropriate the proceeds of 
the sale of the public lands, and to grant pre-emption rights," approved 
September 4, 1841, to the quarter of section number , 

of township number , of range number , 

subject to sale at , do solemnly swear, [or affirm, as the 

case may be,] that I have never had the benefit of any right of pre- 
emption under this act ; that I am not the owner of three hundred and 
twenty acres of land in any State or Territory of the United States, 
nor have I settled upon and improved said land to sell the same on 
speculation, but in good faith to appropriate it to my own exclusive use 
or benefit ; and that I have not, directly or indirectly, made any agree- 
ment or contract, in any way or manner, with any person or persons 
whatsoever, by which the title which I may acquire from the Govern- 
ment of the United States should enure, in whole or in part, to the 
benefit of any person except myself •' 

(Signed) A B. 

I, C. D., register [or E. F., receiver] of the land office at , do 

hereby certify, that the above affidavit was taken and subscribed before 
me, this day of , A. D. 184 . 

(Signed) C. D., Register. 

Or, E. F. Receiver 



356 THE FARMER S AND 

FORM B. 

FOR SASES WHERE THE LAND CLAIMED SHALL HAVE BEEN RENDEREP 
SUBJECT TO PRIVATE ENTRY SINCE THE DATE OF THE LAW. 

I, A. B., of . , being [the head of a 

family, or widow, or single man, over the age of twenty-one years, as 
the case may be, a citizen of the United States, or having filed my 
declaration to become a citizen as required by the naturalization laws, 
as the case may be,] have since the first day of , A. D. 

184 , settled and improved the quarter of section number 

, in township number of range number 

in the district of lands subject to sale at the land-office at , 

and containing acres, which land has been rendered sub- 

ject to private entry since the passage of the act of 4th September, 
1841, but prior to my settlement thereon ; and I do hereby declare my 
intention to claim the said tract of land as a pre-emption right, under 
the provisions of said act of 4th September, 1841. 

Given under my hand, this day of 

A. D. 184 . 

(Signed) A. B. 

In presence of C. D. 

FORM C. 

FOR CASES WHERE, AT THE DATE OF THE LAW, THE LAND CLAIMED 
WAS SUBJECT TO PRIVATE ENTRY. 

I, A, B., of , being [the head of a family, or 

widow, or single man, over the age of twenty-one years, as the case 
may be, and a citizen of the United States, or having filed my declara- 
tion to become a citizen as required by the naturalization laws, as the 
case may be,] have, since the first day of June, 1840, to wit r on the 
day of , A. D. 184 , settled and im- 

proved the quarter section, number , in town- 

ship number , of range number , in the dis- 

trict of lands subject to sale at the land-office at , and 

containing * acres, which land was subject to private entry 

at the passage of the act of 4th September, 1841 ; and I do hereby 
declare my intention to claim the said tract of land as a pre-emption 
right under the provisions of said act of 4th Semptember, 1841. 

Given under my hand, this day of 

A. D. 184 . 

(Signed) A. B. 

In presence of C. D. 



MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS; 



AGRICULTURAL, DOMESTIC, ETC., 



WITH 



VARIOUS USEFUL TABLES. 



CHAPTER XVI 



MISCELLANY. 



In this department a great variety of talles, hints, facts, 
recipes, and the like are given ; without any regard to 
order of classification. They will all be found useful. 

TO MAKE BLACK SALTS. 

Set up a leach. This is done by taking a strong cask, 
or tub made on purpose. Bore a hole in the bottom, and 
place the cask on some blocks of wood to raise it up from 
the ground, so as to catch the water which drops from the 
hole in the cask. Then place on the bottom of the bar- 
rel, inside of it, three or four pieces of wood or bricks, 
and a layer of clean straw on the top of them. Now fill 
the leach with ashes. Keep the ashes thoroughly wetted 
with hot water, (if possible,) and keep it dripping till the lye 
loses its color. The lye must then be boiled in kettles oi 
pans until it crystallizes dry. These black salts always 
find a ready cash market. 

It is scarcely possible to give, very definite informa. 
lion on such simple matters. The emigrant's neighbors 
can, and will teach him more of such little matters than 
a book can. 

TO MAKE MAPLE SUGAR. 

A brief description of the process is given as used by the 
citizens of Vermont in the manufacture of sugar from the 
sap of the maple-tree. The process in the early settle- 



360 THE farmer's and 

merit of the State was very simple, being nothing more 
than evapoj'ating the sap in iron kettles, usually about 
the capacity of ten gallons each, suspended over a fire 
made of logs, in the open air. When the sap is evapora- 
ted in the ratio of about ten or twelve gallons into one, the 
product is taken from the kettles, and strained through a 
flannel bag, which takes from the syrup the leaves, coals, 
etc., which get into the kettles while over the fire. The 
syrup is then put into deep vessels, where it remains for 
two or three days, to settle. The syrup is then carefully 
taken from the vessels, leaving the sediments, and return- 
ed to the kettles, with the addition of about a pint of skim- 
milk to a kettle containing eight or nine gallons of syrup. 
It is then slowly heated, when most of the impurities re- 
maining in the syrup will rise to the surface, and may be 
taken off with a skimmer. The syrup is then evaporated 
to the proper consistency, "which is ascertained by cooling 
small quantities in a spoon, or in some small vessel. The 
product is then taken from the fire, and either stirred un- 
til it is cool, by which it becomes dry sugar, or, more 
commonly, it is put into a tub or trough, and left to cool, 
without stirring. This is afterward drained by drawing 
a plug from the bottom of the tub or trough, thus sepa- 
rating the molasses from the sugar. 

In the early settlement of the State, and even at the 
present time, in new settlements, the above has been the 
usual mode of making sugar. 

In the older settlements, buildings are erected within or 
near the sugar-orchards. In these buildings, large ket- 
tles are set in brick furnaces, for the purpose of evapora- 
ting the sap. In some of them, shallow pans, made of 
sheet-iron, about six inches in depth, and of various di- 
mensions, are also used. These pans are also set in 
brick furnaces, and are believed to evaporate much faster 
than deep kettles of the same capacity. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 361 

The common method of extracting the sap from the 
maple is, by boring into the tree, about two inches, with 
a three-quarter inch bit or auger. The sap is then con- 
veyed into small tubs, holding three or four gallons each, 
called sap-buckets, by spiles slightly inserted into the 
tree. It takes about four gallons of sap to make one 
pound of sugar. The season for making sugar in Ver- 
mont commences between the middle of March and the 
first of April, as the spring is more or less forward, and 
lasts about three weeks. One hundred good trees will 
yield sap sufficient to make from three to five hundred 
weight of sugar. 

The following person received the New-York State 
Agricultural Society's first premium, for the best maple 
sugar. 

To the Committee on Maple Sugar of the New-York State Agricultural Society. 

Gentlemen : I herewith submit to your inspection 40 
lbs. of my maple sugar. The following is a statement 
of the manner of making and clarifying the same : 

In the first place I make my buckets, tubs and kettles 
all clean — I boil the sap in a potash kettle, set in an arch, 
in such a manner that the edge of the kettle is defended 
all round from the fire. I boil through the day, taking 
care not to have anything in the kettle that will give color 
to the sap, and to keep it well skimmed. At night I leave 
fire enough under the kettle, to boil the sap nearly or 
quite to syrup by the next morning ; I then take it out of 
the kettle and strain it through a flannel cloth into a tub, 
if it is sweet enough, if not, I put it into a caldron kettle, 
(which I have hung on a pole, in such a manner that I 
can swing it on and ofi* the fire at pleasure,) and boil it 
till it is sweet enough, and then strain it into the tub and 
let it stand till the next morning, I then take it, and the 
syrup in the kettle, and put all together into the caldron, 

r 16 



362 THE FARMER S AND 

and sugar it off. I use to clarify, say one hundred pounds 
of sugar, the whites of four or five eggs well-beaten, about 
one quart of new milk, and a spoonful of saleratus, all 
well mixed with the syrup before it is scalding hot. I then 
make a moderate fire directly under the caldron, until the 
scum is all raised, then skim it off clean, taking care not 
to let it boil so as to rise in the kettle before I have done 
skimming it ; I then sugar it off, leaving it so damp that 
it will drain a little, until it is well granulated ; I then put 
it into boxes made smallest at the bottom, that will hold 
from fifty to seventy pounds, having a thin piece of board 
fitted in two or three inches above the bottom, which is 
bored full of small holes to let the molasses drain through, 
which I keep drawn off by a tap through the bottom. I 
put on the top of the sugar in the box a clean damp cloth, 
and over that a board well fitted in, so as to exclude the 
air from the sugar. After it has done, or nearly done 
draining, I dissolve it and sugar it off again, going through 
with the same process in clarifying and draining as be- 
fore. 

I do certify, that the above is a correct statement of my 
mode of making maple sugar. 

JOEL WOODWORTH. 

WHICH SIDE OF THE HOUSE TO PLOUGH, PLANT ORCHARDS, 
TRUCK-PATCHES, ETC. 

Very few persons, particularly emigrants, when they 
settle in a new country, appear to know which side of 
their dwelling-house to plough, to avoid sickness, and very 
many farmers, in our older settlements, appear to be in 
want of the same information as to where they should 
avoid planting orchards, truck-patches, etc., to save their 
families from summer and autumn fevers. 

Never plant them, when you can possibly avoid it, on 



THE EMIGKANT's HAND-BOOK. 363 

the western or south-western side of your dwelling, ex- 
cept at a considerable distance from the house ; for the 
rotting of the fruit, melons, squashes, and other like ar- 
ticles, in very warm sickly weather, produces a pestilen- 
tial effluvia ; and the air, which generally blows from the 
west and the southwest in the sickly months, carries it 
directly, both day and night, to your dwelling, and more 
or less sickness is the consequence. And for the same 
reason, persons settling in a new country should not, for 
the first three or four years at least, plough any ground 
on the south or west of their dwellings ; as the new 
ground, which is rich and highly productive, is filled with 
small roots, which, upon being ploughed up and exposed 
to the sun, decompose and rot very fast, and send oflfa 
sickly miasma and pestilential effluvia, which invariably 
produces sickness and frequently death ; while the afflict- 
ed family have not the most remote idea of the cause, and 
how easily it might in a great measure be avoided. Hence 
we frequently see that some families in the country have 
much sickness in the hot months, while others within a 
mile of them are healthy. Thus the great difference be- 
tween the healthy and sickl)'' side of the Illinois and other 
rivers of the West, particularly those having much bottom 
or valley ground that is sometimes overflowed. 

Ask any observing person in the neighborhood of Peoria 
or Peru, Illinois, and they will tell you that the easterly 
and north-easterly side of the river is very sickly in hot 
weather ; and why 1 because the western wind is blow- 
ino- the miasma of the valley of the stream to its eastern 
side. 

But it may be asked, Is the ground on the western side 
of the house in a new country never to be ploughed ? we 
answer, yes, but not at first. Begin by ploughing for the 
first three or four years, until you get acclimated, on the 
easterly or northerly side, and gradually approach the 



864 THE farmer's and 

otlier side, and when at length you are compelled to break 
the ground on the western and southern side of the house, 
do it late in the fall or early in the spring, and thereby 
much sickness may be avoided. 

Farmers in the old States may ask what they are to do 
with ground on the westerly side of their dwellings? We 
answer, put in grain, grass or the like, but not fruit or 
truck near the house on the westerly side. 

The above hints are vastly more important than they 
may at first appear to be. Try them. 

INDIAN CORN SUGAR. 

This new article of Western product is every way 
worthy of notice here. The public has been so often im- 
posed upon by new articles of growth and manufacture, 
that there are prejudices against those which are really 
valuable. 

One thing is certain, namely, that in a particular state 
of the plant, the corn-stalk is full of sweet juice. Here we 
have the material out of which sugar is made, in great 
abundance. Why should not the rich prairies furnish 
all the sugar that the country will need, and even ship it 
to Europe 1 

The following article is from the published transactions 
of the New-York Agricultural Society: 

It is now but three or four years since it was discovered 
that sugar could be made from the corn-stalk. Very 
little attention was given to the subject, until the appear- 
ance of a report made to Congress by Mr. Ellsworth, 
Commissioner of Patents. The account given by him of 
experiments made the preceding year, which he had col- 
lected from the different parts of the United States ; the i 
great amount of practical information embraced in the 
report, together with the very interesting and important 
character given to the subject, awakened public attention. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 365 

The fact, too, that a new method of producing another 
almost indispensable article, discovered about the same 
-:ime, and which had already been brought to considera- 
ble perfection, had proved so triumphantly successful, 
has perhaps had an influence in leading us on to expect 
that soon sugar would be as easily produced from the 
corn-stalk, as oil now is from hogs-lard. Indeed, so ob- 
vious is it to every considerate person, that the position 
once established that sugar can be produced in this way, 
it is no less than bringing an article almost indispensable 
as a part of our daily food, and a most healthful and 
harmless luxury, as much within reach of every family 
in the United States, as the very corn has been from 
which it is produced. 

Viewing the subject in this light, perhaps, induced the 
Executive Committee of the New- York State Agricultu- 
ral Society, to offer the very liberal premium of one hun- 
dred dollars for the " best experiment" in testing the value 
of the crop, and the practicability of cultivating it. The 
thing was new — much expense must be incurred — a mill 
and other apparatus must be constructed — "the juice ex- 
tracted by iron rollers, so as to obtain the maximum 
quantity of sugar" — one acre of northern corn, cultivated 
for the purpose, to be submitted to the test. With all the 
above requisitions, I have endeavored fully to comply ; 
and now the last, but not least, to make a " full report of 
the process and expense," remains to be done. 

So great is the interest felt upon this subject, that it is 
presumed a minute account of the process will be expect- 
ed. In the performance of this duty I must claim the in- 
dulgence of the committee, for the writing of reports is 
new business to me. 

Raising the Corn. — One acre of ground was selected, of 
a sandy loam, cultivated last year to ruta-baga ; this was 
manured with thirty loads of the best stable manure, well 



368 THE 

mixed in with the soil by twice ploughing and harrowing. 
Corn planted the 13th of May, with eight-rowed northern 
corn ; the rows three feet apart one way, and hills eighteen 
inches the other, with from six to eight kernels in a hill. 
Corn came up fine, and was plastered the 31st of May ; 
hoed the first time the 9lh and 10th of June, the second 
time 24th of June. Cultivator run through it three times. 
The corn began to tassel the 18th of July, and was in full 
tassel the first of August. 

Up to this time the crop had looked uncommonly well, 
but from the 1st of August a severe drought commenced, 
and continued until the crop was very materially injured. 
Some spots where the corn had grown most luxuriantly, 
withered and dried ; other parts of the field suffered less, 
so that on the whole there was some more than half of a 
good crop, or what there would have been if the season 
had continued favorable. 

Cutting, Grinding, and Boiling. — Cut the first stalks, 
and made the first experiment at grinding and boiling, the 
25th of August. The stalks at this time were quite ereen, 
but the produce was quite satisfactory, and appeared quite 
favorable for crystallizing. The juice was very abun- 
dant, of a greenish color, very rich, thick and heavy, yet 
retaining all the flavor of the corn-stalk, until after clean- 
sing and boiling. 

August 30th, made the second batch. This was boiled 
in a shallow sheet-iron pan, clarified and strained accor- 
ding to the directions given in Mr. Ellsworth's report. 
From this batch was taken the specimen of sugar exhibited 
to the committee at the State Fair, Rochester. 

Other experiments were made the 4th and 7th of Sep- 
tember. 

The object of these successive experiments was mainly 
to determine, at what time the saccharine matter was suf- 
ficiently matured to make crystallized sugar. 



THE EMIGHANT's HAND-BOOK. :}67 

On the 11th of September the stalks appeared in the 
right stage, and the cutting, grinding, and boiling were 
commenced, and continued with little intermission until 
the whole was completed. The method pursued in this 
operation, was to keep a sufficient number of hands in the 
field to strip the leaves or blades, and cut off the tops as 
fast as the stalks were wanted for use ; this labor was 
generally performed by boys. The corn-field being at a 
little distance from the mill, the horse used for grinding 
was put before a light wagon, and driven to the field ; the 
stalks were then cut and placed upon a wagon, (taking 
care to keep them straight and in order.) driven to the 
mill, and ground without delay. A load of this kind in a 
light wagon, with lumber-box, will make a batch of from 
fifteen to twenty gallons ; this would be ground in about 
thirty minutes. Lime-water was mixed with the juice 
while it was running from the mill. The juice is then 
strained through a flannel cloth into the pan, and heated, 
rather moderately, to the boiling point, when the scum is 
removed with a skimmer ; then boiled rapidly for a few 
minutes. The syrup is then removed from the fire, and 
again passed through the flannel strainer, when the boil- 
ing is finished, as rapidly as possible. 

The process from the cutting of the stalk to taking the 
sugar from the fire, could not possibly be performed in 
less than two hours ; and if the batch was larger, would 
often exceed three. Five batches were made in one day, 
from which one hundred pounds of sugar was produced. 

The Boiler. — The boiler or pan, I made of a sheet o^ 
Russian iron, turned up at the sides and ends, lapped and 
riveted at the corners ; would hold about twenty-five gal- 
lons, five and a-half inches deep, but from fifteen to twen- 
ty gallons is as much as would boil to advantage. This 
pan is placed upon an arch of brick, so that the fire comes 
in contact with only the bottom. 



368 THE farmer's anb 

Mill. — To construct this was a matter of much more 
difficulty. Some drawings and descriptions are given by 
Mr. Ellsworth, but little more could be known from them 
than that there must be three rollers, so placed and put 
in motion, that the stalks in passing between them should 
receive two crushings. 

To plan and construct a mill, with the proper dimen- 
sions and with the strength required, so that the work of 
crushing the stalks should be performed with certainty 
and dispatch, was no easy task. I flatter myself, that I 
have in this been tolerably successful. The rollers and 
iron-work, patterns, etc., for my mill, were made by A. 
J. Langworthy, of Rochester, at a cost of sixty-five dol- 
lars. The whole weight of iron is about nine hundred 
pounds. 

About one-half of the expense of the mill is in the horse- 
power. The iron rollers being placed horizontal, it was 
necessary \o have a horse-power wheel and gearing, in 
order to give them motion. If the more simple, and it 
would seem at first view, less expensive forms, given 
in Mr. Ellsworth's report, had been adopted, placing the 
rollers perpendicular, the horse passing round them, the 
rollers must have been of large diameter in order to take 
through the length of a corn-stalk at one revolution of the 
horse. These large rollers, when made of iron, would 
have been very expensive, and probably not work as fast 
as the small ones I use, giving them a quicker motion by 
gearing. In my mill the circumference of the rollers has 
such a proportion to their motion, that the velocity is equal 
to about one-sixth the velocity of the horse ; or, in other 
words, a corn-stalk six feet long, will pass through between 
the rollers in the same time that the horse will walk thir- 
ty-six feet. The grinding is a beautiful operation ; the 
amount of juice contained in the stalk is surprising to ev- 
ery one. The stalks, in passing through the mill, are 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 369 

C/ushed very fine, and the juice entirely separated from 
them by the pressure of the rollers. 

Clarifying. — This has been to me a difficult, and to 
some extent an unsuccessful operation. All the various 
methods recommended by different persons who have made 
some experiments on corn-stalk sugar, and that all my own 
experjence in clarifying maple sugar could suggest, failed 
of producing fully the desired effect. In all the failures 
wliich have been experienced to produce crystallized 
sugar, the cause should be sought here. Unless the juice 
of corn-stalks can be clarified, it is vain to expect a pure 
article of crystallized sugar. All the obstacles to the 
complete success of this enterprise are met at this point ; 
but that they will be completely overcome, there cannot 
be the least doubt. Lime-water, applied to the juice as 
soon as it comes from the mill, one gill to fifteen gallons, 
was thought to produce the best effect. But experiments 
were made with various other things, such as milk, eggs, 
charcoal, etc. ; these were used separately and combined, 
but nothing appeared to raise the scum as well, and ren- 
der the juice as clear and well-flavored as the lime-water. 
One experiment was made by filtering the juice through 
sand and charcoal. This rendered it very transparent, 
and improved the taste ; but there are very many objec- 
tions to this process — the length of time required for the 
operation is a sufficient one. 

Straining. — This operation is performed both before 
and after clarifying. The strainer used was a square 
yard of good new flannel, of fine texture ; so great is the 
amount of mucilage, or very minute particles of the corn- 
stalk contained in the juice, that the strainer has to be 
rinsed in water once or twice in straining a batch. The 
second time straining \s rendered more difficult by the 
juice being hot, as the hands have to be used in forcing 
it through the cloth. As knowledge and experience ia 
16* 



\ 



370 THE farmer's and 

gained on the subject of clarifying, the straining will be 
dispensed with, except to pass the juice through a coarse 
strainer to remove some of the larger impurities. Some 
method will be discovered, by which all this foreign mat- 
ter will be removed in the operation of skimming. 

Boiling. — This operation requires care and close at- 
tention, particularly when about ready to skim, and when 
the juice is concentrated to about the point desired. The 
more rapidly this operation is performed, the more per- 
fect will be the crystallization. But, however necessary 
it may be, it is scarcely possible, with any apparatus that 
I have any knowledge of, to perform the whole labor of 
cutting, grinding, straining, skimming, and boiling, in the 
short space of one hour, as recommended by Professor 
Mapes, of New-York. If this is ever done, it must be in 
very small quantities, or some very improved method 
must be adopted. 

In boiling, as soon as the scum begins to rise, the fire 
must be regulated with care, that time may be had for 
removing the scum before it shall be boiled in. If the 
operation of boiling and skimming be well performed, 
about one gallon of thick heavy scum will be obtained 
from a batch of fifteen gallons. The syrup, when it be- 
comes thick and nearly done, has a very beautiful ap- 
pearance, in every respect equalling the best of maple 
syrup. To boil to the crystallizing point, (which is a 
very uncertain one,) requires considerable care and dis- 
crimination. The same tests that are used for maple 
syrup, are equally applicable to corn-stalk ; as for in- 
stance, when it will flank off, breaking short, from a dip- 
per or stick ; or string out between the thumb and finger, 
from half an inch to an inch in length, is perhaps the 
safest test. Very great care is necessary, here, that 
it is brought to the right point, and no more ; and also 
in managing the fire, as a little blaze, or too strong a 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 371 

heat, is most sure to scorch, and this is fatal to crystalli- 
zation. 

Crystallization. — Difficulty has been found here, by all 
who have made experiments _ with corn-stalk sugar ; but 
perhaps every one lias obtained a sufficient quantity that 
was well grained, to satisfy them, that the difficulty was 
somewhere in the process of manufacture. 

'From recent observation, I am inclined to think that I 
have kept my sugar in too cool a place. Two small par- 
cels, left, partly by accident, where they received the 
warmth of a fire, were found well grained. But there is 
another difficulty after it is well crystallized, to make the 
molasses separate, or drain, as it is called : although the 
crystal appears to be as fine as was ever formed, still the 
molasses will not separate by any common methods used 
for maple sugar. As yet, I have not been able to pro- 
cure any better specimen than that exhibited at the State 
Fair. 

AMOUNT FROM THE ACRE. 

Although the quantity of stalks was so much diminish- 
ed by the drought, yet six hundred were obtained ; this, 
it should be understood, is weighed when taken from the 
fire and before graining has commenced. If it were all 
well grained and molasses separated, the weight of sugar 
would probably not be more than five hundred, and mo- 
lasses one hundred. In order more fully to determine the 
amount that might be produced from an acre of good 
corn, I measured two square rods of the best corn I had ; 
the stalks were then cut, and their weight was one hun- 
dred and ninety-five pounds ; after grinding, the juice 
weighed sixty-nine pounds and measured nine gallons; 
from this I obtained twelve-and-a-half pounds of sugar. 
By this it would appear, that had the whole acre been as 



I 



372 THE farmer's and 

good as the two rods submitted to the test, one thousand 
pounds would have been the produce. And it^^vould 
seem that this must be a safe calculation, as the stalks on 
the two rods were not as large as would be grown in a 
good season. 

An equal amount by weight of large stalks of rank 
growth, and of small ones that were grown thick, were 
ground separately ; but as no material difference was 
found in the produce, my opinion is that the corn should 
be cultivated so thick that no ears will be produced. 

EXPENSE. 

For the rent ofland, $3 00 

" thirty loads of manure Is. per load, 3 75 

" drawing 30 loads manure 10c. per load, 3 00 

" ploughing, harrowing and fitting ground, 2 34 

" planting, plastering, cultivating and hoeing, 5 87 

*' seed-corn and plaster, 68 

" spreading manure 88 

The whole expense of raising one acre corn-stalk, ^19 52 

There is no part of the business that is so tedious as 
plucking the ears, stripping the leaves, and cutting off the 
tassel. A part of this labor was performed for the fodder 
that might be obtained from it, but it was not sufficient to 
pay ; as the labor of plucking the ears was performed for 
this consideration, I am unable to say what it would cost ; 
but this much is certain, it is needless for the most part, 
as no ears of any amount need be raised, if the corn is 
sufficiently thick. From the best estimate that I can 
make of the expense of stripping leaves and cutting the 
tassel, I think that a smart hand would perform the work 
on an acre in six days ; therefore, 



The amount brought forward, $19 52 

To six days' stripping leaves, etc., 4 50 

The whole expease up to the cutting of the stalks is ^24 02 



THE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 373 

It is somewhat difficult to come at the expense I was at 
in manufacturing the acre of stalks into sugar, so much 
was done by way of experiment. But as on^ hundred 
pounds were made in one day, 1 shall take that as my 
guide, and call it a day's work for two hands to make one 
hundred weight. 

The amount above brought forward, ^24 02 

To 12 days' work making sugar at 6s. per diem, 9 00 

To use of horse and wagon 6 days at 3s. per diem,... 2 25 
To 3-4 cord of wood at 12s. per cord, 1 12 

The whole expense of manufacturing the 600 pounds is ^36 40 
Or a fraction more than six cents per pound. 

Some credit might be given for fodder, as a large 
amount of leaves or blades might be saved, with a little 
extra labor while stripping them. The stalks, after being 
ground, are worth something ; horses and cattle eat them 
very greedily when they are fresh from the mill. 

REMARKS AND SUGGESTIONS, BY WAY OF RECAPITULATION. 

1. If good crystallized sugar, of pleasant flavor, shall 
be produced from the corn-stalk, I can see no good reason 
why its manufacture shall not become as universal as the 
raising of corn. Every neighborhood can as easily be 
supplied with its apparatus to make sugar, as to make 
cider. 

2. Corn should be grown so thick as to produce no 
ears. Some variety of corn that grows very large, like 
the " Ohio" or " Rocky Mountain," might be best ; this 
latter is well adapted in some respects, as it is very little 
inclined to ears or leaves ; cutting the tassel will not 
prevent earing, unless they are all cut and kept cut. 
The cutting of the stalk may commence as soon as the 
tassel is ripe. If the weather is warm, grind immediate- 
ly ; but if cool, or early in the morning, a little delay is 
not thought to be injurious. 



374 THE farmer's and 

3. Lime-water is, perhaps, the best for clarifying of 
anything yet discovered ; but some agent that will more 
effectually cleanse from all deleterious or foreign matter, 
is necessary. Science, with persevering experiment, will 
no doubt produce this result. 

4. The less time occupied in boiling, the more perfect 
is crystallization. This is true of the maple juice, and 
probably more so of the corn-stalk. To boil to advantage, 
two pans should be provided. 

5. Any man of ordinary ingenuity can make a pan in 
two hours, with no tools but cold chisel, punch, hammer, 
and six cents worth of rivets. 

6. I make no doubt, that a mill with wooden rollers 
would answer a good purpose for a small operation, and 
small operations are what is wanted ; let no man go into 
this business largely until there is more knowledge on the 
subject. A simple mill with two rollers, that might be 
built for five dollars, would crush the stalk and save most 
of the juice. No cog-wheels can be necessary; for if 
you turn one, the other must go. When experience has 
taught how to clarify, so that we may be sure of a good 
article, then will be time for more perfect and ejcpensive 
machinery. 

If the result of this enterprise depended on the amount of 
saccharine matter contained in the corn-stalk, its success 
would be certain. Estimates that have been made of the 
amount that might be made from an acre, have probably 
never been too high. Improvements in cultivation, and 
in finding the variety of corn best adapted, will no doubt 
greatly exceed these estimates. 

8. The expense, as compared with maple, must be 
much in favor of corn-stalk. Of the expense of growing 
an acre of corn-stalks, every farmer may judge correct- 
ly ; then compare the amount of fuel, the amount pro- 
duced in a day, the expense of fixtures, and it is all vastly 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 375 

in favor of the corn-stalk. Only let the corn-stalk sugar 
have the delicious flavor and the beautiful crystallization 
of the improved maple, and no longer will that pride of 
the forest be hacked and bored, " with wicked hands," to 
obtain its sap. 

May we not hope that Mr. Ellsworth's forth-coming re- 
port will throw much light on the subject ? The collect- 
ed experience of all that have been engaged in the busi- 
ness the past season, will soon be laid before Congress and 
the people. If Professor J. I. Mapes, shall fulfil his 
pledge made in the last report, some scientific and practi- 
cal information will no doubt be the result. 

With these remarks, I submit this report. I have en- 
deavored to give a faithful and full account of my experi- 
ment. I am aware, that on some parts of this business, I 
cannot speak as favorably as might be desired ; but for 
myself, I have no fear of the result of the enterprise. 1 
would beg leave to suggest, that a liberal premium be 
offered next year, for a given amount of corn-stalk sugar 
of the best quality. This might stimulate, not only a 
greater amount, but more careful experiment. 

TO MAKE CORN-STALK SUGAR. 

1st. Cut the cane as ripe as possible, but before any acetic 
acid is formed ; litmus paper, touched to the fresh-cut 
cane, will turn red if acid. 

2nd. Express the juice without loss of time, as every 
moment after cutting will deteriorate its quality. 

3rd. A small quantity of clear lime-water (say one quart 
to a hundred gallons of juice, should be added the mo- 
ment it is expressed, unless the juice shows acidit)' with 
litmus paper ; in that case, no lime should be used, but a 
solution of sal soda, or soda ash, should be added, until it 
is precisely neutral. 

4th. When the juice is neutral, (free from excess of acid 



I 



376 THE farmer's and 

or alkali,) it should be evaporated in such an apparatus 
as would finish its charge in 30 minutes ; if the boiling 
power is too small, good crystallization cannot possibly be 
obtained. 

The whole time occupied from the cutting of the cane 
to finishing its boiling should not exceed one hour. 

5th. To know when the boiling is finished, place a ther- 
mometer in the kettle, and continue to evaporate until it 
stands at 230® Fahrenhiet. If, when placed to run off 
after cooling, it should be found loo freely boiled, the 
next time boil to 240°, or, O: too light to run off, to 238°, 
and so on. 

6th. The kettle or boiler should be so arranged, that the 
moment it is done, its charge should be thrown into a cooler, 
capable of holding a number of charges. The first charge 
should be left in the cooler, with stirring, until the second 
charge is thrown in ; then with an oar scrape the crystals 
found on the side and bottom of the cooler loose, and gently 
stir the whole mass together, (the less stirred the better,) 
so continue, at the letting in of each charge, to stir gently ; 
and when all is in the cooler, let the whole stand until it 
cools down to 175°; then fill out into sugar moulds of a 
capacity not less than 14 gallons. When cooled in the 
mould sufficient, (say fourteen hours,) pull the plug out 
of the bottom of the mould, and insert a sharp point, nearly 
as large as the hole, some six inches ; withdraw the point, 
and stand the mould on a pot to drip. 

7th. If the sugar is intended to be brown, leaving it 
standing on the spot for a sufficient length of time, in a 
temperature of 80°, will run off its molasses, and leave 
it in a merchantable shape ; it will probably require 
t^venty days. It can then be thrown out of the moulds, 
and will be fit for use. When moulds cannot be obtained, 
conical vessels of wood or metal, with a hole at the tip^ 
will answer equally as well. 



1 



THE emigrant's hanb-book. 377 

The above description will be sufficient for any operator 
if strictly followed, 

BROOMCORN. 

There are several varieties raised in Hampshire coun- 
ty, Massachusetts, in the valley of the Connecticut river, 
principally in the broad meadows of Northampton, Had- 
ley, and Hatfield. The pine-tree kind is regarded as the 
poorest kind, or the least advantageous for cultivation ; 
yet, as it is the earliest, (being three weeks earlier 
than the large kind,) in a short season, when its seeds will 
ripen, while the seeds of the other kinds fail to ripen, this 
may prove the most profitable crop. The North Riv^er crop 
is ordinarily the best crop ; it is ten days earlier than the 
large kind, and yields about 720 pounds of the brush per 
acre — the brush meaning the dvied panicles, cleaned of the 
seed, with eight or twelve inches of the stalk. The New 
Jersey, or large Z:z7i<Z, yields a thousand or eleven hundred 
pounds of brush per acre. The stalks and seeds are large. 
In good seasons, this is the most profitable crop. There 
is also the Shirley or black brush. Soil rich, alluvial lands 
are best adapted for the broomcorn, more especially if 
warmly situated, protected by hills, and well manured. 

Method of Planting. — The broomcorn is planted in rows 
about 2^ or 3 feet apart, so that a horse may pass be- 
tween them with a plough or cultivator, or harrow. The 
hills in each row are from 18 inches to 2 feet apart, or 
farther, according to the quality of the soil. The quan- 
tity of seed to be planted is estimated very differently by 
different farmers — some say that half a peck is enough 
per acre, while others plant half a bushel, and some a 
bushel, in order to make it sure that the land shall be 
well stocked. The rule with some is to cast a tea-spoon- 
ful, or 30 or 40 seeds, in a hill ; the manure at the time 



378 

of planting should be put in the hill, and old manure or 
compost is preferred, as being most free from worms. 

Cultivation. — The broomcorn should be ploughed and 
hoed three times the last time when about three feet high, 
though some hoe it when it is six feet high, and when they 
are concealed by it as they are toiling in the field. The 
number of stalks in a hill should be from seven to ten. 
if there are only five or six stalks, they will be larger and 
coarser ; if there are about eight, the brush will be finer 
and more valuable. In the first hoeing, the supernumerary 
stalks should be pulled up. 

Harvesting. — As the frost kills the seed, the broomcorn 
is harvested at the commencement of the first frost. The 
long stalks are bent down at two or two and a half feet 
from the ground ; and by laying those of two rows across 
each other obliquely, a kind of table is made by every two 
rows, with a passage between each table, for the conven- 
ience of harvesting. After drying for a few days, the brush 
is cut, leaving of the stalks from six to twelve inches. 
The longer it is cut, of course, the more it will weigh ; and 
if the purchaser does not object, the benefit will accrue 
to the farmer. However, the dry stalk weighs but little; 
if its weight is excessive, the purchaser sometimes re- 
quires a deduction from the weight. As it is cut, it is 
spread on the tables, still further to dry. As it is carried 
into the barn, some bind it in sheaves ; and this is a great 
convenience for the further operation of extracting the 
seed. Others throw the brush into the cart or wagon, un- 
bound. 

Scraping. — The process of extracting the seed is called 
" scraping the brush." Two iron horizontal scrapers are 
prepared ; one movable, to be elevated a little, so that a 
handful of brush may be introduced between them. The 
upper scraper is then pressed down with one hand, and 
the brush drawn through with the other, the seed being 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 



379 




scraped ofT. This is tlie old method. A newly invented 
scraper is superseding the old one. It is an upright in- 
strument of elastic wood or steel, inserted in a bench of a 
convenient height for the operator. 

The form is as follows : 

a is a piece of wood or steel, immovable ; 
h and c are pieces which are elastic, movable 
to the right and left at the top, but fastened to i 
the central piece below. The degree of elas- 
ticity may be regulated by wedges in the 
planks d and f- — wedges in the hole through 
which the pieces pass. 

A quantity of brush is taken in the hand, 
and brought down upon the top of this instru- 
ment. As it is forced down, and drawn toward 
the body, it separates the elastic sticks from 
the central piece, but their elasticity presses sufficiently 
on the brush, so that the seed is scraped off. 

The advantage of this scraper is, that both hands may 
be applied to the brush, instead of only one hand, as in 
the other kind, and the elastic power of nature is substitu- 
ted for the pressure of one of the hands. The instrument 
also seems to double the scraping surface. The instru- 
ment was invented at Hartford. We have been told it has 
not been patented 

The following plan may, therefore, be useful. The 
operator stands at the end A. \ i / 

The lower plank may rest 
on the barn floor, or have A /"^! 
short legs. The upper ob- 
lique has a hole,, through 
which the scraper passes, 
and down which the seed may fall. Each side of the in- 
strument, a wedge may be in*serted, to regulate its elasti- 
city, or by some other contrivance this object may be 




380 THE FARMER S AND 

secured. In scraping, the panicles must first be laid 
evenly together, and the stalks taken in the hand. If 
this is not done in the field, and bundles not formed, then 
must it be done with considerable labor at the time of 
scraping in the barn. 

Product. — A common crop is seven hundred to eight 
hundred pounds per acre. There have teen raised one 
thousand and eleven hundred pounds per acre, with eighty 
to one hundred bushels of seed. The large kind grows 
eleven feet high. 

Value of the Crop.— About the year 1836 or 1837, the 
brush sold at 12 1-2 cents a pound ; and one farmer in 
Northampton sold his crop standing, unharvested, at one 
hundred dollars per acre. Since then the price has been 
decreasing. This year it has been four and five cents. 
At six cents, the farmer, for eight hundred pounds, gets 
$48 an acre, besides sixty or seventy bushels of seed, 
worth a third of a dollar a bushel ; so that he receives 
$70 or upward for an acre. ^ 

Good farmers regard the seed alone as equal to a crop 
of oats from the same land. Some land owners have 
rented their land for broomcorn, at $25 per acre, they 
putting on five or six loads of manure. 

One farmer, who, a few years ago, cultivated fifty 
acres in broomcorn, must have had an almost unequalled 
income for a New-England farmer. 

Quantity. — In Northampton, probably, two hundred 
acres are raised ; in Hatfield, three hundred ; in Hadley, 
four hundred ; in other towns, Whateley, Deerfield, Green- 
field, EasthamptQn, Southampton, South Hadley, Spring- 
field and Longmeadow, perhaps thrpe hundred or four 
hundred more ; in all, in the valley of the Connecticut, , 
twelve hundred or thirteen hundred acres ; the product, [ 
in brush and seed, worth $1,000,000. 

Manufacture of Brooms, — Individuals tie up brooms 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 381 

with wire or twine. The expense is greater for materials 
and labor when wire is used. 

The turned broom-handles cost, as delivered, only one 
dollar a hundred — one cent each. The expense of other 
materials and labor in making a broom is six cents, or on 
the whole about seven cents. In a good broom, a pound and 
a half of brush is employed, which at the present price of 
five cents, would be seven and a half cents, so that a broom 
made with wire costs now about fourteen and a half cents. 
Brooms are made with brush weighing three-quarters of 
a pound, one pound, one pound and a quarter, and one 
pound and a half The brush is whitened by the man- 
ufacturer. It is placed in a large tight box, and bleached 
by the fumes of sulphur ; but this process is said to weak- 
en the brush. 

Miscellaneous. — A few remarks will be added, some of 
which were omitted in their proper places. If the stalks 
are cut before the seed is ripe, they are better, stronger, 
more durable, than if cut after the seed is ripe. In this 
case, the farmer would lose the value of the seed. He 
of course will not submit to this loss, unless it is made up 
to him by the increased price of the brush. 

The seed is used for feeding horses, cattle, and swine. 
It is ground and mixed with Indian meal, and is regard- 
ed as excellent food — it weighs forty pounds a bushel. 

The brush, when it is put in the barn, should be placed 
on a scaffold, so as to be exposed to a circulation of the 
air, that4tmay dry, and not mould. For all the purpo- 
ses of us^T^a broom made with twine is equal to one made 
with wire ; and a man can make several more of them 
in a day. 

A CHEAP PAINT. 

Take one bushel of unslacked lime, and slack it with 
cold water ; when slacked, add to it 20 lbs. of Spanish 



I 



382 THE farmer's and 

whiting, 17 lbs. of salt, and 12 lbs. of sugar. Strain 
this mixture through a wire sieve, and it will be fit for 
use after reducing with cold water. This is intended for 
the outside of buildings, or where it is exposed to the 
weather. In order to give a good color, three coats are 
necessary on brick, and two on wood. It may be laid on 
with a brush similar to white wash. Each coat must have 
sufficient time to dry before the next is applied. 

For painting inside walls, take as before one bushel of 
unslacked lime, 3 lbs. of sugar, 5 lbs. salt, and prepare 
as above, and apply with a brush. 

I have used it on brick, and find it well calculated to 
preserve them — it is far preferable to oil paint. I have 
also used it on wood, and assure you, that it will last 
longer on rough siding, than oil paint will on planed 
siding or boards. 

You can make any color you please. If you wish a 
straw-color, use yellow ochre, instead of whiting ; for 
lemon-color ochre, and chrome yellow ; for lead and 
slate-color, lampblack ; for blue, indigo ; for green, 
chrome green. These different kinds of paint will not 
cost more than one-fourth as much as oil paints, including 
labor of putting on. 

PRESERVATIVE COMPOSITION. 

For a composition for coloring and preserving gates, 
roofs, and timber generally, from the weather, melt twelve 
ounces of rosin in an iron pot or kettle ; add three gal- 
lons of train oil, and three or fourjolls of brimstone; 
when they are melted and become thin, add as much 
Spanish brown, (or red or yellow ochre, or any other 
color you like, ground as usual with oil,) as will give 
the whole the shade wanted. Then lay it on with a brush 
as hot and as thin as you can. Some days after the first 
coat is dried, lay on a second. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 383 

INCOMBUSTIBLE WASH. 

Slack slone lime in a large tub or barrel with boiling 
water, covering the tub or barrel, to keep in all the steam. 
When thus slacked, pass six quarts of it through a fine 
sieve. It will then be in a state of fine fiour. Now, to 
six quarts of this lime, add one quart of rock or Turk's 
Island salt, and one gallon of water ; then boil the mix- 
ture and skim it clean. To every five gallons of this 
skimmed mixture, add one pound of alum, half a pound 
of copperas, by slow degrees add three-fourths of a pound 
of potash, and four quarts of fine sand or hickory ashes, 
lifted. We suppose any kind of good hard wood ashes 
will answer as well as hickory. This mixture will now 
admit of any coloring matter you please, and may be ap- 
plied with a brush. It looks better than paint, and is as 
durable as slate. It will stop small leaks in the roof, 
prevent the moss from growing over and rotting the wood, 
and render it incombustible from sparks falling upon it. 
When laid upon brick work, it renders the brick imper- 
vious to rain or wet. 

PRICE OF LARD, PORK, etc., SHOWING THE VALUE Oi 
SWINE TO THE FARMER. 

It may not be unacceptable to the producer to learn the 
value of his commodity in the market of exportation. 

A New-Orleans price current of January 7th, 1843, 
quotes lard at six and a quarter cents, and hams at seven 
cents. The question arises, what is pork worth to the 
farmer on the western waters, where the shipment to 
New-Orleans is estimated at seventy-five cents per bar- 
rel? 

A fat hog, weighing three hundred pounds, will furnish 
two hams weighing, together, about forty-two pounds, 
leaving two hundred and fifty-eight pounds of pork. If 



384 THE FARMER^S AND 

this is reduced to lard by the most expeditious and profi- 
table manner, viz : by steaming, we may expect about 
sixty per cent, of lard, equal to 154.80 pounds, which, ac 

six and a quarter cents, amounts to $10 67 

Add forty-two pounds of ham at seven 

cents $2 94 

Deduct shrinking and curing. . 94 

2 00 

12 67 
Deduct keg or barrel 76 

Also freight to New Orleans 67 

Commissions and contingencies. ... 75 

2 17 

$10 50 
This- gives $3 50 per hundred for the hog as dressed. 

FREIGHT TO EUROPE, etc. 

As shipments will be made to other parts of Europe 
besides England, the freight to Liverpool or Havre, from 
New- York and New-Orleans, or Boston, are given in the 
following table : 

Price of articles in England : Lard, 38s. to 43s. per 
cwt.;=to $8 36 to $9 36. 

Cost of shipment or freight from Cleveland to Montreal, 
47 1-2 cents per hundred. 

Cost from Montreal to Liverpool, about 70 cents per 
hundred. 

Cost to New-Orleans from Cincinnati, 75 to 87 cents 
per barrel. 

From New-Orleans to New- York, 75 cents per barrel. 

From Cleveland to New- York, 55 cents per hundred 
pounds. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 385 

From New-York to Liverpool, 33 cents per hundred 
pounds. 

From Cleveland to Boston, 60 cents per hundred 
pounds. 

From Boston to Liverpool, 37 1-2 cents per hundred. 

From New-Orleans to Liverpool, 50 cents per hundred 
pounds. 

EGGS; AN ARTICLE OF EXPORT 

A method of preserving eggs, by packing them in salt 
with the small end downward, and by which they have 
been kept perfectly good for eight or nine months, will, 
it is believed, enable the inhabitants of portions of our 
country where these abound, to make them profitable. 
Thousands of bushels may be sent off to the Atlantic 
markets. Great quantities are used in France ; and as 
the duty on them in England is so low, (not two cents 
per dozen,) they might bear exportation. They have 
been gathered and sold at the West as low as ninety cents 
per bushel : which, as a bushel contains forty-five dozen, 
is but two cents per dozen. 

. PRICE OF WHEAT IN EUROPE. 

It may be gratifying to some to compare the transpor- 
tation of flour, etc, from Poland, (one of the greatest grain- 
growing districts,) and the United States, to England. 

From Poland to Dantzic, the grain is chiefly brought 
from the interior in flatboats of the rudest construction, 
similar to those in use on the Western waters of the 
United States, at an expense of twenty-five cents per 
bushel, open to the weather, etc. During the voyage the 
wheat sprouts, and forms a thick mat or covering for the 
bulk. On reaching Dantzic, the boat is broken up and 
sold, the wheat taken out and dried in the fields, then 
stored in the warehouses at an expense of six cents per 
17 



386 THE FARMER^S AND 

bushel. From Dantzic to England, the freight, etc, not 
including the duty, is eight pence — equal to about fifteen 
cents per bushel ; making in all about forty-six cents per 
bushel. From Illinois to Liverpool, the whole freight 
would be 14s. per quarter, or Is. 9d. — equal to thirty- eight 
cents per bushel ; being about eight cents in favor of Il- 
linois. There are costs and charges also, in both cases, 
which would, probably, be in favor of our export. 

In this connection, it may be interesting to compare a 
detailed estimate of the export of wheat from lllincis to 
England, both by New-Orleans and Canada. 

ILLINOIS WHEAT, VIA NEW-ORLEANS TO LIVERPOOL. 

Wheat, four and three-quarter bushels at 50 cents is ^2 37 

Grinding and barreling, (with offal,) 5'C 

Freight to New-Orleans 62 

Freight to Liverpool 66 

$4 15 
which is little less than ninety cents. Charges would be 
alike in both cases. 

View the matter in another point of light. Suppose we 
carry our grain or flour through Canada, and pay, after 
the 5th of July, 3s. on an imperial quarter, viz : eight 
bushels, which is about eight one-third cents per bushel ! 
Foreign wheat would have to pay, at the present sliding 
rule, sixty cents per bushel. Could they compete with 
us? 

We therefore could succeed with the greatest competi- 
tor; but that competitor cannot supply one and a half 
million of bushels, less than the surplus of some of the 
smaller States of this Union produce ; and, indeed, all 
Europe could not supply England with more than eight- I 
een millions bushels, under the most favorable circum- 
stances — about three-fourths as much as the State of Ohio 
now furnishes. 



EHE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 387 

It may be remarked, too, that the crops on the continent 
are far more precarious than those of the United States ; 
and hence the continental Governments find it necessary, 
and are careful to reserve large granaries, to guard 
against such a misfortune as a failure of the usual har- 
vest. Exportation thence is also forbidden in certain 
cases, but in the United States no such prohibition exists. 

While, therefore, we may look with confidence to ad- 
vantages in our favor in the British market, we must re- 
member that we have to compete against almost unpaid 
labor, and cannot expect a great profit on our culture, 
unless the very cheapest mode of production is studied. 
Labor (as we have before remarked,) must doubtless fall 
very considerably in agricultural districts, or else farmers 
and planters cannot hire. 

TO PREVENT SMUT IN WHEAT. 

On the 2nd of April, 1742, I prepared, says a sensible 
writer, eight bushels of wheat for seed, as follows : A 
brine was made strong enough to bear up an egg, and in 
quantity sufficient to wash a bushel at once. The wheat 
was put into the brine, and everything that would swim 
skimmed oflT and thrown away. It was then taken out, 
and a sufficient quantity of lime sifted on to it to make it 
dry. It was allowed to remain in this state in a box until 
the 6th, by which time some of it had begun to sprout, 
when it was sown. On the night of the 6th it began to 
rain, and continued to rain all the next day, and the birds 
were so thick upon the wheat that 1 feared I should he 
obliged to sow it over ; consequently I dragged it in while 
it was raining on the 7th. The ground was very wet in 
consequence of the water that had fallen since the wheat 
was sown, and some of my neighbors prophesied that I 
would have a large crop of smut, saying that smut was 



398 THE FARMER^S AND 

caused by putting in wheat in wet weather. The wheat 
being harvested and thrashed, the product was one hun- 
dred and thirty-five bushels that was saved, considerable 
being lost by thrashing on the ground. The seed was 
very foul and smutty — the product was perfectly free 
from smut and other foul stuff, and of a superior quality. 
Part of the ground had wheat on the year before, and a 
part corn. The number of bushels is not mentioned as 
being a great yield. One of my neighbors, from whom 
I obtained the seed, sowed the same kind without any 
preparation, on the 5th of the same month, the product 
of which was very smutty, and otherwise foul. 

TABLE. 

A box 24 inches by 16 inches square, and 28 inches 
deep, will contain a barrel, or 10, 752 cubic inches. 

A box 24 inches, by 16 inches square, 14 inches deep, 
will contain a half barrel, 5,376 cubic inches. 

A box 16 inches by 16 8-10 inches square, and 8 in- 
ches deep, will contain a bushel, or 2,150 4-10, cubic in- 
ches. 

A box 12 inches by 11 2-10 inches square, and 8 in- 
ches deep, will contain a half-bushel, or 1,075 2-10 cubic, 
inches. 

A box 8 inches by 8 4-10 inches square, and 8 in- 
ches deep, will contain one peck, or 537 7-10 cubic in- 
ches. 

A box 8 inches by 8 inches square, and 4 2-10 inches 
deep, will contain one half-peck, or 286 8-10 cubic in- 
ches. 

A box 7 inches by 4 inches square, and 4 8-10 inches 
deep, will contain half a gallon, 134 4-10 cubic inches. 

A box 4 inches by 4 inches square, and 4 2-10 inches 
deep, will contain one quart, 67 2-210 cubic inches. j 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 389 

These measures all come within a small fraction of a 
cubic inch of being perfectly accurate, as near, indeed, 
as any measures of capacity have ever yet been made for 
common use ; the difficulty of making them with abso- 
lute exactness, has never yet been overcome. 

MEASURING CORN. 

The following rule for ascertaining the quantity of 
shelled corn in a house of any dimensions, is by William 
Murray, Esq. of South Carolina, and was read before the 
St. John's Collection Agricultural Society, and commu- 
nicated by them for publication in the Southern Agricul- 
turist. 

Rule. — Having previously levelled the corn in the 
house, so that it will be of equal depth throughout, ascer- 
taining the length, and breadth, and depth of the bulk ; 
multiply these dimensions together, and their products by 
four, then cut off one figure from the right of this last pro- 
duct. This will give so many bushels and a decimal of 
a bushel of shelled corn. If it be required to find the quan- 
tity of eared corn, substitute eight for four, and cut off 
one figure as before. 

Example. — In a bulk of corn in the ear, measuring 12 

feet long, 11 feet broad, and 6 feet deep, there will be 

316 bushels and eight-tenths of a bushel of shelled corn, 

or 633 bushels and six-tenths of ear corn, as : 

12 12 

11 11 

132 
6 

792 792 

4 8 

316,8 633,6 



I 



390 THE farmer's and 

The decimal 4 is used when the object is to find the 
quantity in shelled corn, because that decimal is half 
of the decimal 8, and it requires two bushels of ear corn 
to make one of shelled corn. In using these rules, a half 
a bushel may be added for every hundred ; that amount 
of ears results from the substitution of the decimals. 

The term, " barrel of corn, '^^ so much used by Souther- 
ners, means five bushels of shelled corn. 

TO CURE SHEEP SKINS WITH THE WOOL ON. 

Take a spoonful of alum and two of saltpetre ; pulve- 
rize and mix well together, then sprinkle the powder on 
the flesh side of the skin, and lay the two flesh sides to- 
gether, leaving the wool outside. Then fold up the skin 
as tight as you can, and hang it in a dry place. In two 
or three days, as soon as it is dry, take it down and scrape 
it with a blunt knife, till clean and supple. This com- 
pletes the process, and makes you a most excellent sad- 
dle cover. If, when you kill your mutton, you treat the 
skins this way, you can get more for them from the sad- 
dler, than you can get for the wool and skin separately 
disposed of otherwise. 

Other skins which you desire to cure with the fur or 
hair on, may be treated in the same way. 

DESTRUCTION OF WEEDS. 

There are few things more essential to the farmer than 
having a good wheat crop. He gets a better price for 
his grain, and what is quite as much, he has no fears from 
injury in using such pure wheat for seed. Weeding wheat, 
therefore, is not to be neglected. In a wheat field, every- 
thing that is not wheat is a weed, and should be pulled 
out at once. Remember that a rank thrifty weed, chess, 
cockle, stemkrout, etc., draws sufficient nutriment from 
the crop to sustain a handful of good ears of wheat, an-d 



I 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 391 

which belong to them. Thorough summer fallowing is 
the best eradicator of weeds ; but if any escape and spring 
up, they should be carefully gathered and destroyed before 
the seed ripens. 

Let no weed ripen its seed on your farm, if it can be 
prevented. The thistle, Johns wort, and similar pests, are 
left so long in man}/ cases before they are cut, that they 
mature their seeds, and these do as much mischief as if 
allowed to stand and ripen, while the labor of cutting them 
is nearly lost. The best way to treat them is to rake and 
burn them as soon as dry. This destroys their power of 
mischief effectually. It is very bad policy to put weeds, 
whether cut with your hay or grain, into your barn, as 
the manure of the yard will be filled with seeds, ready to 
spring up whenever and wherever it is applied to the soil. 
There are thousands of farms in this country, the produc- 
tive value of which, both in grain and grass, is lessened 
full twenty-five per cent, in consequence of the vile weeds 
with which they are infested. Sowing spring grains, 
such as spring wheat, barley, or oats, has had a bad effect 
in extending the growth of weeds, and in many places the 
system must give way to summer fallowing, or cropping 
will be impossible. 

FATTENING ANIMALS. 

There are some rules which may be advantageously 
adopted in feeding animals, which, however obvious they 
may be, are too often passed over, or neglected. Some 
of these will be specified ; and 

1st. The preparation of Food. — This should be so 
prepared, that its nutritive properties may be all made 
available to the use of the animal, and not only so, but 
appropriated by the least possible expenditure of muscular 
energy. The ox that is obliged to wander over an acre 
to get the food he should find on two or three square rods; 



392? 

the horse that is two or three hours eating the coarse food 
he would swallow in fifteen minutes, if the grain was 
ground, or the hay cut as it should be ; the sheep that spends 
hours in making its way into a turnip, when, if it was 
sliced, it would eat it in as many minutes ; the pig that 
eats raw potatoes, or whole corn, when either cooked 
could be eaten in one quarter of the time now used, may 
indeed fatten, but much less rapidly than if their food was 
given them in a proper manner.' All food should be given 
to fattening animals in such a state, that as little time and 
labor as possible, on the part of the animal, shall be re- 
quired in eating. 

2nd. The food should he in abundance. — From the time 
the fattening process commences, until the animal is 
slaughtered, he should never be without food. Health 
and appetite are best promoted by change of food, rather 
than by limiting the quantity. The animal that is stuffed 
and starved by turns, may have streaked meat, but it will 
be made too slowly for the pleasure or profit of the good 
farmer. 

3rd. The food should he given regularly. — This is one 
of the most essential points in feeding animals. If given 
irregularly, the animal indeed consumes his food, but he 
soon acquires a restless disposition, is disturbed at every 
appearance of his feeder, and is never in that quiet state 
so necessary to the taking on of fat. It is surprising how 
readily any animal acquires habits of regularity in feed- 
ing, and how soon the influence of this is felt in the im- 
provement of his condition. When at the regular hour 
the pig has had his pudding, or the sheep his turnips, 
they compose themselves to rest, with the consciousness 
that their digestion is not to be unseasonably disturbed, or 
their quiet broken by unwonted invitation to eat. 

4th. The animal should not he needlessly intruded upon 
between the hours of feeding. — All creatures fatten much 



THE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 393 

faster in the dark than in the light, a fact only to be ac- 
counted for by their great quiet. Some of those creatures 
that are the most irritable and impatient of restraint while 
feeding, such as turkeys and geese, are found to take on 
fat rapidly when confined in dark rooms, and fed at stated 
hours by hand. There is no surer proof that a pig is do- 
ing well, than to see him eat his meal quickly and then 
retire to his bed, to sleep or cogitate until the hour of 
feeding returns. Animals while fattening should never 
be alarmed, never rapidly driven, never be fed at unseas- 
onable hours, and, above all things, never be allowed to 
yvant for food. 

OPODELDOC, OR CAMPHORATED SOAP LINIMENT. 

Take common white soap, three ounces ; camphor, one 
ounce; oil of rosemary, oil of origanum, of each one -third 
ounce ; alcohol, one pint ; cut the soap fine, and, with a 
gentle heat, dissolve it in the alcohol in which the other 
articles had been previously dissolved. Pour into wide- 
mouthed vials or jars to cool. 

If LIQUID OPODELDOCT is preferred, take two ounces of 
Castile soap, in place of three ounces of common soap. 
Troy ounces are designated. If not practicable to have 
the articles weighed by that standard, bear in mind that 
the Troy ounce is nearly equal to 1 1-9 ounce Avoir- 
dupois. 

Opodeldoc, made according to the above recipes, is al- 
together superior to that usually sold in vials at exorbitant 
prices. 

British Oil. — Take spirits of turpentine and linseed 
oil, of each half a pint ; oil of amber, oil of juniper, and 
mineral tar, of each one gill. 

Oil of Spiko, or a mixture commonly sold under that 
name, is nothing but spirits of turpentine, mineral tar, and 
6ome essential oil, added in various proportions. The 
17* 



394 THE farmer's and 

following is a good recipe for its preparation : Take spirits 
of turpentine, one pint ; mineral tar, half a pint ; oil of 
amber, three ounces ; oil of rosemary, one ounce. 

ITEMS IN DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 

Use spirits of turpentine to remove grease spots from 
clothes. It dissolves the grease, and then soap the more 
easily removes it. Grease maybe removed from undyed 
, woollen by a solution of pearlash. 

Lime spots on woollen may be completely removed by 
strong vinegar. The vinegar effectually neutralizes the 
lime, but does not generally affect the color of the cloth. 
Dark cloth, the color of which has been completely de- 
stroyed in spots six inches square, has thus had its original 
color completely restored. 

The whiteness of ivory-handled knives may be restored 
by rubbing them with fine sand-paper or emery. 

The oftener carpets are shaken, the longer they last, as 
the particles of sand which collect upon them grind the 
threads. Sweeping them also wears them. 

Dry wood will produce, on a moderate estimate, twice 
as much heat as the amount of green wood ; and saves 
much trouble in kindling tires on cold mornings. To pre- 
vent its burning away too rapidly, the sticks should be large. 
To suppose that green wood would actually cause more 
heat in burning than dry, is as absurd as to suppose that 
a vessel of hot water will freeze sooner than a cold one. 

FOREIGN MONEYS, 

WITH THEIR VALUES, AS ESTABLISHED AT THE CUSTOM 

HOUSE, BY LAW. 

Dollars. 
Aux Cayes, 8^ livres are equal to - - - - 1.00 
Blue or current dollar of Denmark, according to the ex- 
change of London. 
Cayenne, 8 livres 5 sols of, are equal to - - - 1.00 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 396 

Dollars. 

Ducat of Naples .80 

Franc of France --,.-..- .18f 
Florin of Trieste ---._-. .48 
Genoa, 6^ livres are taken as - - - - - 1.00 

Guadaloupe, 8 livres and 5 sols - - - - - 1.00 

Guilder of Antwerp - - 40 

Crefelt - - - . - - .40 

" Frankfort, and others of the 24 florin rate - - .40 

Holland .40 

" Nuremburg - - - - - - - .40 

St. Gall 0.40 36.100 

" Trieste - .48 

" United Netherlands ----- .40 
Livre of France -.------ .18^ 

Geneva - 29 

Genoa, 6| livres 1-00 

" Leghorn, 6J livres ----- 1.00 

Louis d'or rixdoUar -._---- .77 

Marc Banco of Hamburg ------ .33^ 

Milrea of Brazil, according to rate of exchange. 

Milrea of Madeira - - - - - - -1.00 

" Portugal 1-24 

Ounce of Sicily .------ 2.46 

Pezza of Leghorn - . - - - - 0.90 76-100 

Piastre of Turkey, according to rate of exchange in London. 
Pound sterling of England, Scotland, and Ireland - - 4.80 
" Antigua ------ 2.22 

" Barbadoes - - - - - - 3.20 

« Bermuda 3-00 

Halifax 4.00 

« Jamaica - - - - - - 3.00 

« New Providence ----- 2.50 

Rial plate of Spain --.---- -10 

Velon of Spain -^^ 

Rix-doUar of Bremen - -77 

Denmark 1-00 

Berlin, current - - - - 0.68 29-100 

« Hamburg 100 

Prussia . - - - - - .68 29-100 
«« Saxony - -^^ 



396 THE FARMER S AND 

Dollars. 

Rix-dollar of Sweden 1.00 

Ruble of Russia, according to the exchange between London 

and St. Petersburg. 
Rupee of Bombay, Calcutta, and Sicca, each - - - .50 

" Madras, 103=100 Sicca rupees 

Star pagoda of India 1.84 

St. Bartholomew's, 8s. 3d. - - . - - - 1.00 

St. Kitt's, 9s. - - 1.00 

Tale of China 1.48 

In Canada, money is reckoned in Halifax currency, a 
pound Halifax being 16s. 8d. sterling ; thus making £100 
sterling, £120 currency. 

The legal value of a British sovereign in Canada, is 
24s. 4d. Halifax. It usually passes in trade at about two 
pence currency, higher. 

RATES OF POSTAGE. 

ABSTRACT OF THE POST OFFICE LAW, PASSED MARCH 3, 1849. 

Cents. 

Letters, not over half an ounce, not exceeding 300 miles, .... 5 

" " " " exceeding 300 miles, 10 

" over half an ounce, and not over an ounce, double price. 
Any fractional excess over an ounce, always counted an ounce. 

Ship Letters, delivered where received, 6 

" if conveyed by mail, in addition to the postage, . . 2 

" deposited in a post office for ship, 1 

Handbills, Circulars, and Advertisements, not exceeding one 

sheet, unsealed, any distance, (to be prepaid,) 3 

Newspapers, sent from office of publication, not exceeding 1900 

sq. inches, under 100 miles, or within the State, . 1 

" over 100 miles, and out of the State, 1^ 

" over 1900 square inches, same rate as pamphlets. 

" Transient papers, the same rates, to be prepaid. 

Pamphlets, of all kinds, not exceeding one ounce a copy, .... 2J^ 

" for each additional ounce, 1 

" A fractional excess, if less than a half ounce, is not 

counted ; if a half ounce or more, it is counted an ounce. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 397 

FOREIGN AND SEA POSTAGE. 

Cents. 

Letters for the U. States' territories on the Pacific, a single half 

ounce or less, (prepaid or not,) 40 

" for Havana, (to be prepaid,) 12J 

" for Chagres, " " 20 

" for Panama, " " 30 

" from any post office in the United States, to or from G. 
Britain or Ireland, by American or English steamers, 
for a single half ounce or less, (prepaid or not,) ... 24 
" for Bremen, by American steamers, a half ounce or less, 

(prepaid or not — the usual inland postage to be added,) 24 
" for other foreign countries, if sent by British steamers, 

U. S. inland postage, any distance, on a half ounce, . 5 
An ounce, of course, will be double, (to be prepaid,) or 10 
" if sent by American steamers, to go through the British 
mail, the whole postage, from any U. S. post office, 

for a single half ounce, (to be prepaid,) is 21 

" for France, Spain, Holland, and the Netherlands, if sent 
by American steamers, must be prepaid. 

Newspapers, sea-postage, besides inland, both prepaid, 3 

" from any U. S. post office, to or from Great Britain 

or Ireland, both prepaid, 2 

BLUE GRASS. 

Blue grass will grow upon any of the soils of Illinois, 
but it delights in a moist situation. Hence swails, level 
or wet prairie, bottom-land and barrens, are best adapted 
to its cultivation. It suffers in the heat of summer upon 
the rolling prairie, unless mixed with clover, which, by 
its broad leaves, protects the roots of blue grass from the 
rays of the sun, or unless it is suffered to grow unmolest- 
ed, in which case it protects itself Close feeding in the 
summer will keep it short and stunted, until the fall rains 
set in. 

Sowing. — The seed ripens the 1st of July. Hence any 
time after that, until October, will answer for sowing. 
It is better that it should get a start in the fall, as it does 
better the succeeding season. It will not generally maka 



398 THE farmer's and 

a sward for itself in less than two years ; hence it should 
be sown with other grasses, such as timothy or clover, or 
both. Were I to set ten acres in blue grass, I should 
pursue the following method. Prepare the ground for 
wheat and make it smooth ; take 1 peck of timothy, 4 
quarts of clover, and 4 quarts of blue grass seed, and 
mix them ; sow one peck of the mixture about the 1st of 
September, or later. If sowed without fall grain, and 
the season be at all favorable, a fine crop of timothy and 
clover may be cut the succeeding summer. Some prefer 
to omit the clover until spring ; in which case it escapes 
danger from the winter. The blue grass will hardly show 
itself the first season, and those unacquainted with it 
will be apt to suppose that their seed was bad, or that it 
had not come up. The second season, T would pasture 
it with cattle or horses. This mode will have a tendency 
to kill out the clover and timothy, and in the fall of that 
season the blue grass will show itself. The iealha (as 
the English call it,) of cattle, seems to be necessary to 
bring them forth thriftily, or it may be that the mere tram- 
ping the ground has a beneficial effect upon it. 

Seed. — What is called stripped seed, is the kind com- 
monly found in market. Some sell what is commonly 
called cleaned seed, but it has all the chaff in it, and is only 
separated from the seed stems. The stripped seed is 
preferred, as its elasticity prevents its suffering with damp- 
ness, as the clean seed sometimes does. Great care is 
requisite in obtaining the seed, as it frequently loses its 
vital qualities by storage in damp warehouses. Before 
using the stripped seed, rub it through a common wire 
meal sieve. This comminuates it, and permits its distri- 
bution among other seeds with which you sow it. 

Blue grass will grow on the unbroken prairie, but will 
not show itself until the prairie grass has been killed out 
by pasturing. I presume in point of fact, that blue grass 



a99 

sowed at any season of the year, in any manner, and 
upon any kind of soil, will grow and flourish, sooner or 
later, according to circumstances. Tramping the ground 
at intervals is of prime necessity to bring it out, as far 
as my observation extends. Blue grass spreads very 
rapidly hy its roots, as well as by the annual seed. 

Blue grass pastures, as well as others, will become 
what is called hide-hound, in the course of years. In such 
a case, a sharp harrow, well loaded and dragged over it, 
so as to tear the sod materially, or a scarifier which should 
cut two or three inches in depth, will produce the best 
effects. In truth, all our grasses are as much improved ^' 
by cultivation, in frequently tearing the roots, as any of our 
grains or vegetables. The best time for the operation is 
late in the fall ; but the spring will answer, if done 
early. 

From the Union Agriculturist 

BREAKING PRAIRIE. 

Mr. Secretary : 

I had long since intended to have redeemed my pro- 
mise, to communicate to you such observations as may 
have occurred to me in my agricultural pursuits, and may 
be deemed interesting or useful to the farming communi- 
ty ; but circumstances have hitherto prevented me. 

Prairie Farming, its difficulties. — When I commenced 
making a farm on the prairie, I found myself engaged in 
a task by no means without its difficulties and perplexi- 
ties. Whatever I had learned of farming at the East, 
had to be principally learned over again here. It is true, 
that making fences, erecting buildings, etc., are matters 
of not so much difficulty, nor is there anything very pe- 
culiar in the process here ; but it is in opening the farm, 
in cultivating the soil, and in the whole process of raising 
the crop, that Western experience is wanted. I looked 



400 THE 

in vain for the result of well tested and enlightened 
experiments ; and I sensibly — deeply felt, the want of 
just such a journal as I hope your paper will prove. It 
is true, I found myself surrounded by a class of enlight- 
ened, intelligent, industrious and prosperous farmers, of 
whom I embraced every opportunity to learn what I might 
of my new business ; nor did I experience any want of 
kindness on their part to inform me. What was the re- 
sult? 

Breaking Prairie. — Of course among the first objects, 
was to get some prairie broken ; and to that subject were 
my inquiries directed. What was the season of the year 
in which to break prairie ? How deep should it be broken ? 
With what team could it be most profitably done, taking 
into the account the expense and quality of the work ? 
In answer to all these questions, I received answers dif- 
fering very widely from each other, from men of perhaps 
equal experience and intelligence. In reply to the first 
inquiry, some said, commence breaking as soon as the 
ground is sufficiently dry in the spring, but be sure that 
you stop the plough by the first of July. Others assured 
me, that no consideration should induce me to break ex- 
cept in the month of June ; while others recommended 
July as well as June ; and many assured me that break- 
ing might profitably be contftiued till September, should 
circumstances permit. An equal contrariety of opinion 
was observed in answer to the other inquiries. What 
was to be done amid such a variety of opinion — such a 
multitude of contradictory advice ? Yet, even here, I 
found safety in a multitude of counsel. I pursued my 
inquiries, and ascertained the reason assigned by each for 
the opinion which he gave, and found that each conclu- 
sion was deduced from a reasonable cause ; but without 
going into the particular experience of each one, I will 
state briefly the conclusions to which I have arrived from 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 401 

my own experience and observation, assisted by what I 
have been able to learn from others. 

For a Spring Crop.—U it be intended to raise a spring 
crop the first year, and especially corn, it is advisable to 
start the plough as soon as the grass has started sufficient- 
ly to afford a good hite. By this time, in ordinary sea- 
sons, the ground will be sufficiently dry, and the plough 
may be kept going as late as it will do to put in the crop. 
The crop will be found to be best on the land first bro- 
ken ; but the best year, it will be found that the land last 
broken is in much the best condition. 

For a Fall Crop. — If a fall crop is intended, the break- 
ing should not commence till about the first of June, and 
may be continued till the middle of August ; and in very 
dry seasons, perhaps a month later. It will almost inva- 
riably be found, that the land first broken will afford the 
best crop, and nearly twice the quantity may be expected 
from land broken in June, that will be realized from land 
broken in September ; so that it will be readily perceiv- 
ed, if the time can be otherwise profitably employed, 
it is not advisable to continue breaking so late as that 
time. 

Crop on the Sod. — If it is proposed to raise a spring or 
fall crop on the sod, the prairie should, by all means, be 
broken as deep as possible, say from four to five inches at 
least. All who have had any experience in prairie farm- 
ing, are well aware that the sward is composed of a strong 
tenacious mass of grass roots, firmly interwoven together, 
near the surface of which there is, comparatively, but 
very little earthy substance to be found, and that little so 
firmly compressed and bound up, that it can afford but 
very little nourishment to the growing crop. Hence the 
necessity of ploughing deep, in order to obtain sufficient 
mould to sustain the crop, will be readily perceived. P 



4(« 

is true, that it requires a very considerable more force to 
break deep than it does to break shallow ; perhaps more 
than would be at first imagined ; but then you are com- 
pensated for that, by the greater ease and facility with 
which the land is ploughed the second time ; because if 
the land is broken shallow, it is necessary to go below the 
first breaking, when you cross-plough or split the furrows, 
(which is perhaps the better practice,) and hence you are 
compelled to cut off all of the old roots again, while they 
are yet sufficiently strong to afford considerable resist- 
ance. 

If no crop is intended to be grown the first year upon 
the piece broken, the team should not be started till about 
the first of June ; nor if practicable should it be continued 
longer than about six weeks. And I believe it is univer- 
sally admitted, that land broken in June decays much 
faster, and a better crop may be observed, even for several 
years, than on land broken much earlier or later. The 
two principal reasons for this are, that the grass is at this 
time growing with full vigor, and the land is then as dry 
as at any other season of the year. It must be borne in 
mind, however, that these observations will only apply to 
our ordinary seasons ; for it sometimes happens that June 
is a very wet month, as in 1833, when, I am informed that 
land broken in August, which was a dry month, proved 
better than that broken in June. 

COST OF A PRAIRIE FARM. 

The first cost of the land is $1,25 an acre. The first 
ploughing we generally count as cost, though erroneously. 
This is worth $1,50 an acre ; or to be better understood, 
I will say differently. Prairie land is abundant at gov- 
ernment price ; but timber is mostly in second hands and 
is held higher. 



THE liMIGIJ ant's hand-book. 403 

A quarter section of prairie land, that is, one hundred and sixty 

acres, at $1,25, is $200 

Tnnber, say 40 acres, which is more than enough, at $3, 120 

Breaking up the prairie, at 1,50 240 

Fencing into four lots, eight rails high and stakes, 960 
rods, or three miles, 15,366 rails at one cent, $153,53 ; 

3,840 stakes, at ^ cent, $19,20 173 

A good comfortable double log cabin, such as first sttlers 

generally occupy 50 

Other small buildings and temporary sheds 50 

Average cost of a well with pump, $30, with buck- 
ets, $15 15 

I will add to cover contingencies, such as half an acre of 
land well paled in for a garden, a cow-yard, hog-pen, 
and other fixings 72 

This makes the cost of the farm, independent of the wood 

land, just $5 an acre — the total $920 



HYDROPHOBIA— OR, MADNESS AND ITS REMEDIES. 
JOHN Wesley's remedy for the bite of mad dogs. 

First. Plunge into cold water daily for twenty days ; 
keep under as long as possible. This has cured, even 
after the hydrophobia had begun. 

Second. Or mix the ashes of trefoil, or oak ashes, 
with hog's lard, and annoint the part bitten as soon as 
possible ; repeat twice or thrice, at six hours' intermission. 
This has cured many in England, and in one instance 
particularly, a dog bitten on the nose by a mad dog. 

Third. Or mix a pound of salt with a quart of water ; 
squeeze, bathe, and wash the wound with this brine for 
one hour ; then bind some fine salt on the wound for 
twelve hours. The author of this recipe was bitten six 
times by rabid or mad dogs, and each time cured himselt 
by this simple remedy. The above is an extract from 
John Wesley's book of recipes for the poor of England. 



404 THE FARMER^S AND 

HYDROPHOBIA, OR CANINE MADNESS, CURED. 

The following remedy (says a certain author) has been 
successfully used by the sporting gentry in Ireland, 
whose hounds sometimes get in a rabid state. The ex- 
periment was made soon after a dog had bitten a number 
of his comrades. All the dogs bitten but one had the 
remedy administered, and showed no signs of madness. 
But the one which did not take the remedy, died in a 
rabid state. This was a fair experiment. 

AN INTERNAL REMEDY FOR HYDROPHOBIA. 

Take six ounces filings of pewter; six ounces rue, 
the herb, pulverized ; foi \ ounces garlic ; four ounces 
mithridate, or Venice treaki? ; cut the rue and garlic fine 
or small, mix the whole in three quarts of strong beer, 
put the same articles in a vessel that can be stopped tight ; 
put it into a pot of cold water. If the vessel containing 
the ingredients be of glass, wind a rope of hay round it 
to prevent its breaking when boiling. Let it simmer for 
three or four hours over a slow fire. Then take the in- 
side vessel out of the pot of water, and pour out the con- 
tents, and strain and press, or squeeze the strength out of 
the herbs, and boitle the liquid for use — cork it well. 
Dose : For a dog, )nc table-spoonful the first day ; two 
the second day ; i area the third day ; four the fourth 
day ; and five the ^fth day. Then, for four days more, 
give five table-spoo-isful for a dose each day, making nine 
days in all. The same remedy to be taken, and in the 
same way, by man, woman, or child. Children take the 
remedy in proportion, under twelve years of age. To be 
taken in the morning. The sooner the remedy is applied 
after the bite the better. Poultice the wound with the 
warm ingredients, squeezing the wound. This has the 
appearance of a valuable remedy. Try it. 



THE EMIGRANT'S HAND-BOOK. 



405 



And yet another valuable remedy for hydrophobia, the 
bite of rattlesnakes, chunk-head, or pilo snake, spider, 
etc. Take a white onion, cut h across the grain into four 
equal parts ; sprinkle fine salt on the onion, and apply it 
by bandages to the wound as soon as possible after being 
bitten by dog, snake, or spider, and the poison will run 
up into the onion ; repeat every half hour with a new 
piece, or until there is no discoloring of poison in the 
onion, and the poison extracted. Then a healing plaster 
may be used, and the wound healed. 

TO MEASURE CATTLE. 

In ascertaining the weight by admeasurement, the girth 
is taken by passing a cord just behind the shoulder-blade 
and under the fore-legs : this gives the circumference, 
and the length is taken along the back from the foremost 
corner of the blade-bone of the shoulder, in a straight 
line to the hindmost point of the rump. (See engraving 
below.) 




406 THE farmer's and 

TABLE FOR ADMEASUREMENT OF CATTLE. 



Girth. 


Length. 


Weight. 


Girth. 


Length. 


Weight. 


ft. in. 


ft. in. 


St. lbs. 


ft. in. 


ft. in. 


St. lbs 


4 3 


3 


12 12 


5 9 


3 9 


29 7 




3 3 


13 13 




4 


31 6 




3 6 


15 




4 3 


33 6 




3 9 


16 1 




4 6 


35 5 




4 


17 2 




4 9 


37 5 


4 6 


3 


14 6 




5 


39 5 




3 3 


15 9 




5 3 


41 4 




3 6 


16 12 




5 6 


43 4 




3 9 


18 1 


6 


4 3 


36 6 




4 


19 4 




4 6 


38 8 




4 3 


20 6 




4 9 


40 10 


4 9 


3 3 


17 6 




5 0' 


42 12 




3 6 


18 11 




5 3 


45 




3 9 


20 2 




5 9 


47 2 




4 


21 6 




5 9 


49 4 




4 3 


22 11 




6 


51 8 




4 6 


24 2 


6 3 


4 6 


41 11 




4 9 


25 7 




4 9 


44 2 


5 


3 3 


19 5 




5 


46 7 




3 6 


20 12 




5 3 


48 11 




3 9 


22 7 




5 6 


51 2 




4 


23 12 




5 9 


53 6 




4 3 


25 5 




6 


55 11 




4 6 


26 13 




6 3 


, 58 . 2 




4 9 


28 6 


6 6 


4 6 


45 3 




5 


30 




4 9 


47 10 


5 3 


3 3 


21 4 




5 


50 4 




3 6 


22 13 1 




5 3 


52 11 




3 9 


24 8 




5 6 


55 4 




4 


26 3 




5 9 


57 11 




4 3 


27 12 




6 


60 4 




4 6 


29 7 




6 3 


63 




4 9 


31 2 


6 9 


4 6 


48 11 




5 


32 11 




4 9 


51 7 


5 6 


3 6 


25 2 




5 


54 3 




3 9 


27 




5 3 


56 ]3 




4 


28 11 




5 6 


59 9 




4 3 


30 8 


i 


5 9 


62 6 




4 6 


32 5 


1 


6 


65 1 




4 9 


34 2 




6 3 


67 11 




5 


36 U 


7 


4 9 


55 6 




5 3 


37 11 




5 


58 4 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 
ABLE FOR ADMEASUREMENT OF CATTLE. 



407 



Girth. . 


Length. 


We 


ight. 


Girth. 


Length. 


Weight. 


ft. in. 


ft. in. 


St. 


lbs. 


ft. in. 


ft. in. 


St. lbs. 




5 3 


61 


3 




5 6 


78 9 




5 6 


64 


2 




5 9 


82 3 




5 9 


67 


1 




6 


85 11 




6 


69 


13 




6 3 


89 5 




6 3 


72 


12 




6 6 


92 13 




6 6 


75 


11 




6 9 


96 7 


7 3 


4 9 


59 


6 




7 


100 




5 


62 


8 


8 


5 3 


80 




5 3 


65 


9 




5 6 


83 11 




5 6 


68 


11 




5 9 


87 8 




5 9 


71 


13 




6 


91 6 




6 


75 


1 




6 3 


95 3 




6 3 


78 


3 




6 6 


99 




6 6 


81 


4 




6 9 


102 12 


7 6 


5 


66 


13 




7 


106 9 




5 3 


70 


4 


8 3 


5 6 


89 1 




5 6 


73 


9 




5 9 


93 2 




5 9 


77 







6 


97 3 




6 


80 


5 




6 3 


101 3 




6 3 


83 


9 




6 6 


105 4 




6 6 


87 







6 9 


109 5 




6 9 


90 


5 




7 


113 6 


7 9 


5 
5 3 


71 
75 


7 
1 




7 3 


117 6 



QUANTITY OF MEAL OF DIFFERENT GRAINS. 

The corn of the different species of grain produces, 
when ripe, nearly the following quantities of meal, or 
household flour and bread per bushel ; viz : 

Wheat if weighing 60 lbs., of flour 48 lbs., of bread 64 lbs. 

Rye, 54 42 56 

Barley, 48 37^ 50 

Oats, 40 ....22i 30 

The flour of wheat, which is cut before it is quite ripe, 
is whiter than that which is allowed to come to maturity, 
and bears a higher price in the markets. The grain 



408 THE FARMER S AND 

which is intended for the miller should, therefore, be 
reaped before it has reached its utmost growth ; but that 
which is meant for seed should be allowed to stand until 
the last moment at which it can be cut with safety. The 
corn is ground into meal of various degrees of fineness, 
and a bushel of sixty pounds generally yields, when 
dressed, about the following quantities : viz. 

Fine flour, 25^ lbs. 

Household flour, 22^ 

Pollards, 8 

Bran, 3 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE AVERAGE QUANTITY OF NUTRITIVE MATTER IN ONE 
THOUSAND PARTS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES OF ANIMAL FOOD. 

Beans, 510 Veal, 250 

Mutton, 290 Pork, 240 

Beef, 260 Blood, 215 

Chicken, 270 Cod and sole, 210 

Brain, 200 White of an egg, 140 

Haddock, 180 Milk, 72 

In bread, every hundred pounds' weight is found to 
contain eighty pounds of nutritious matter. Butchers' 
meat, averaging the various sorts, contain only thirty-five 
pounds in a hundred. French beans (in the grain,) 
ninety-two pounds in a hundred ; broad beans, eighty- 
nine ; peas, ninety-three ; lentilles, ninety-four in a hun- 
dred. Greens and turnips, which are the most acqueous 
of all vegetables used for domestic purposes, furnish only 
eight pounds of solid nutritious substance in a hundred. 
Carrots fourteen pounds ; and what is very remarkable, 
as being in opposition to the hitherto acknowledged theory, 
one hundred pounds of potatoes only yield twenty-five 
pounds of substance valuable as nutritious. One 
pound of good bread is equal to two pounds and a half 
or three pounds of the best potatoes ; and seventy-five 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 409 

pounds of bread and thirty pounds of meat are equal to 
three hundred pounds of potatoes ; or, to go more into de- 
tail, three-quarters of a pound of bread and five ounces of 
meat are equal to three pounds of potatoes. One pound 
of potatoes is equal to four pounds of cabbage, and three 
pounds of turnips ; but one pound of rice, broad beans, 
or French beans (in grain,) is equal to three pounds of 
potatoes. 

In the esculant roots, such as carrots, etc., but espe- 
cially turnips, sugar is the leading nutritive matter ; and 
the common fruits contain sugar, gum, albuminous mat- 
ter, and acids, together with a highly attenuated form of 
woody fibre or lignin, which in that state is probably di- 
gestible. The comparative nutritive properties of the 
most common fruits will be seen by a reference to the 
annexed table. 

TABLE 

SHOWING THE AVERAGE QUANTITy OF NUTRITIVE MATTER IN ONE THOU- 
SAND PARTS OF SEVERAL VARIETIES OF VEGETABLE FOOD. 

Morels, 896 Peaches, 200 

Almonds, 650 Gooseberries, 190 

Tamarinds, 340 Apples, 170 

Plums, 290 Pears, 160 

Grapes, 270 Strawberries, 100 

Apricots, 260 Melon, 30 

Cherries, 250 

ON FATTENING ANIMALS. 

There is a very great difference in the quantity of food 
which animals require, and in the time which they can 
pass without it. In general, those animals which are the 
most active require most, and those which are most indo- 
lent require least food. The cause of this is pretty obvi- 
ous ; the bodies of animals do not remain stationary, they 
are constantly wasting, and the waste is proportioned to 
18 



410 THE farmer's and 

the activity of the animal ; hence the body must receive, 
from time to time, new supplies in place of what has 
been carried off. The use of food answers this purpose. 
Almost all the inferior animals have particular substances 
on which they feed exclusively. Some are herbivorous, 
some are granivorous, and others, again, are carnivo- 
rous. 

From various experiments, we have the following re- 
sult: 

A horse will consume as much food, besides corn as 8 sheep. 

A cow, 12 " 

A fattening ox, 10 " 

A three year old heifer, 8 " 

A two year old heifer, 6 " 

A one year old heifer, 4 " 

A calf, 2 " 

BREAD MADE FROM THE MIXTURES OF VARIOUS 
GRAINS. 

Cakes may be made of potatoe flour, without mixing with 
any other, as follows : Its adhesive quality does not ad- 
mit of baking or kneading unmixed with meal or wheaten 
flour ; but it may be managed in this manner. A small 
wooden frame, nearly square, is laid on a flat pan like a 
frying-pan ; this frame is grooved, and so constructed 
that, by means of a pressor or lid introduced into the 
groove, the cake is at once fashioned according to the 
dimensions of the mould. The frame containing the fari- 
na may be almost immediately withdrawn after the mould 
is formed upon the pan, because, from the consistency 
imparted to the incipient cake by the heat, it will speedily 
admit of being safely handled. It must not, however, be^ 
fired too hastily, otherwise it is apt to become unpleasant- 
ly hard, and unfit for mastication. This precautionary 
measure being observed, it will be found that, when tho- 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 411 

roughly ready, the bread of potatoe flour, even unaided by 
any foreign ingredient, will eat very palatably. It might 
then, from time to time, be soaked for puddings, like the 
tapioca ; or it might be used like the capada cake, which, 
in appearance, it so much resembles ; that is, when well 
buttered and toasted, it will make an excellent breakfast 
appendage. It is to be observed here, that this potatoe 
bread is not fermented. 

Potatoes may be prepared to serve the purpose of bread, 
by simply boiling and cutting them into thin slices, which 
are dried thoroughly by a gentle and equal heat ; for 
which purpose steam heat answers best. They may be 
close packed, and carried to any distance, or preserved 
for any length of time. 

M. Parmentier observes, that potatoes contain too much 
mucilage in proportion to their starch, which prevents 
them from being converted into good bread ; but that if 
starch be collected from ten pounds of raw potatoes, by 
grating then in cold water, and agitating them^ and the 
starch thus produced be mixed with other ten pounds of 
boiled potatoes, and properly subjected to fermentation, 
like wheat flour, it will make good bread. 
Potatoe Flour. — Sir G. Mackenzie, in the " Transactions 
of the Highland Society," observes that potatoe flour, boil- 
ed with milk and a little sugar, forms one of the mos,t 
palatable, wholesome, and cheap dishes of which a labor- 
ing man can partake, and cannot be too strongly recom- 
mended to cottagers, who ought always to convert a portion 
of their potatoe crop into flour, to be used when fresh 
potatoes cannot be got. In fact, it is potatoe starch that 
very nearly resembles arrow-root, though inferior, and 
at all events would be a very desirable thing to have in 
a cottager's family, as a light nourishing food in case of 
sickness. 



412 TITK FAKMERS AND 

ON FUEL. 

In England, coal, from its abundance and cheapness, 
is the commonly employed fuel; but where wood is 
abundant, or where its value is little more than that of 
felling it, it is used either in its original state, or in the 
form of charcoal. It is essential to good and profitable 
fuel that it should be free from moisture ; for unless it be 
dry, much of the heat which it generates is consumed in 
converting its moisture into vapor ; hence the superior 
value of old, dense, and dry wood, to that which is porous 
and damp. A pound of dry wood will, for instance, heat 
thirty-five pounds of water from 32° to 212°, and a pound 
of the same wood in a moist or fresh state, will not heat 
more than twenty-five pounds from the same to the same 
temperature ; the value, therefore, of different woods for 
fuel is nearly inversely as their moisture, and this may 
be roughly ascertained, by .finding how much a given 
weight of their shavings loses by drying them at 212°. 

The following table exhibits at one view the power of 
various species of wood in producing heat. 

The tiumber indicates the quantity of timber in pounds 
required to raise the temperature of a cubic foot of water 
from 52° to 212°. 

Pounds. 

Oak chips , 4.20 

Elni 3.52 

Fir 3.52 

Ash 3.50 

Hornbeam 3.37 

Cherry-tree 3.20 

Beech 3.16 

Lime-tree ;. 3.10 

. Poplar 3.10 

Maple 3.00 . 

Service-tree 3.00 

The value of turf and peat, as fuel, is liable to much 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 413 

variation, and depends partly upon their density, and part- 
ly upon their freedom from earthy impurities. A pound 
of turf will heat about twenty-six pounds of water from 
32° to 212°, and a pound of dense peat about thirty 
pounds ; by compressing and drying peat, its value as a 
fuel is greatly increased. 

TO CURE WESTPHALIA HAMS. 

Hams may be cured in order to resemble, in taste, 
those of Westphalia, by the following process: Cover a 
young ham of pork with dry salt ; let it be for twenty- 
four hours, to draw off the blood ; then wipe it perfectly 
dry, and take one pound of brown sugar, a quarter of a 
pound of saltpetre, half a pound of bay salt, and three 
pints of salt ; incorporate these ingredients in an iron pan 
over the fire, and stir them continuaUy till they acquire 
a moderate degree of heat. In this pickle the ham must 
be suffered to remain for three weeks, frequently turning 
it, when it should be suspended in a chimney for drying 
by means of smoke from no other but a wood fire. The 
smoke from oak saw-dust, or shavings, is the best for im- 
parting a fine flavor. This smoke contains, imperfectly 
formed, pyroligneous acid, which is the agent that com- 
municates the flavor to the Westphalia hams. In Dum- 
freisshire, the pickle for hams is sometimes made with 
one-half ale, which renders the hams shorter, and adds 
greatly to the richness of their flavor. 

CUTTING UP MEAT. 

The mode of cutting up meat, differs in various places. 
As it is an important matter, we annex an article from an 
English work, which cannot fail of furnishing important 
hints. 

The mode of cutting up meat is more diversified even 
than the slaughtering, almost every town having its own* 



414 THE FARMER S AND 

But as London is the emporium of the export meat tradu^jf 
Scotland, the method of cutting up meat in the metropolis 
should constitute the particular study of the shippers of 
meat. To acquire this necessary information, the shippers 
should have a few of the most expert butchers in London 
to slaughter and cut up the carcasses of the various sorts 
of animals. They should never consider themselves above 
acquiring such information, when their own interest will be 
benefited by its adoption. Whether the London method of 
cutting up meat is really the best of any, and we think it 
is, it must be admitted that the London butchers must 
have the most extensive and varied experience ; and any 
one has only to witness the operation performed by ex- 
pert London butchers, to be satisfied that they display 
great skill in their art, and execute their work with the 
utmost precision. Indeed, the precision with which they 
divide the different qualities of meat from the same car- 
cass, shows their thorough knowledge of the qualities of 
meat ; and the variety of prices which different parts of 
the same carcass fetch, shows with what accuracy they 
can gratify the tastes of the various grades of their cus- 
tomers. 

In practicing this precision, they not only make the 
best use of the carcass, but realize the highest value for 
it, and at the same time gratify the ta'ste of the greatest 
number of customers. In the carcass of any animal, an 
ox, for instance, there are different qualities of meat, and 
these qualities are situated in difTerent parts of the car- 
cass. All the pest parts are in London used for roasting 
and steaks, and the inferior for boiling, either in pieces, 
or making stock for soups, or minced meat, in the various 
forms of pies, sausages, etc. 

The carcass of an ox is cut up into the following 
pieces, as may be seen on referring to the numbers on the 
annexed cut,^. 1. 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 



415 



Fig. 1. 




Hind-Quarter. 

1. Loin. 

2. Rump. 

3. Itch or adze-bone. 

4. Buttock. 

5. Hock. 

6. Thick flank. 

7. Thin flank. 

8. Fore-rib. 



Fore-Quarter 

9. Middle-rib. 

10. Chuck-rib. 

11. Brisket. 

12. Leg of mutton piece. 

13. Clod and sticking and neck. 

14. Shin. 

15. Leg. 



The relative value of these different cuts of an ox may 
be stated at their current value, viz : when the rumps, 
loins, and fore-ribs of a fine ox fetch 8d. a pound, the thick 
flank, buttock, and middle-rib will fetch 6d.; the itch or 
adze-bone, thin flank, chuck-rib, brisket, and leg of mut- 
ton piece, 5d.; the clod and sticking, and neck, 3d.; and 
the legs and shins, 2d. a pound. Such is the difference 
in value of the different cuts of an ox in the meat markets 
in London. As an object of comparison, we shall also 
give a figure of an ox cut in the Edinburgh method, as 
in^^. 2, and the great difference between both methods 
may be seen at a glance. See cuts 



41(1 



THE FARMER S AJNEr 
Fig. 2. 




Hind. Quarter. 

1. Sirloin, or back-sye. 

2. Hock-bone. 

3. Buttock. 

4. Large round. 

5. Small round. 

6. Hough. 

7. Thick flank. 

8. Thin flank. 

9. Nine holes. 



>Rump 



Fore-Quarter. 

10. Large runner. 

11. Small runner. 

12. Spare-rib, or fore-sye. 

13. Brisket. 

14. Shoulder Iyer. 

15. Nap, or shin. 

16. Neck. 

17. Sticking piece. 



It is therefore obvious that, of the two methods of cut- 
ting up beef, the London affords much more of roasting 
and steak, that is, the more valuable pieces, out of the 
same carcass ; and, of course, more money would thereby 
be reallized from it. 

Much of what we have said on the management requi- 
site in sending beef to the London market, will apply 
equally to sending mutton, veal, or lamb to the same 
market. The best pieces only should be sent to London, 
and the remainder kept for the home market : and were 
this recommendation attended to, the expense of exporta- 
tion would be diminished on what was sent ; for the best 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 



417 



pieces would pack well together in a comparatively small 
space, whereas, whole carcasses of mutton, by the round- 
ness of the rib, occupy much unnecessary room, for which 
freight must be paid. 

Mutton is a^so cut up differently in London and Scot- 
land, as may be seen on referring to the figures 3 and 4, 
of which 3 represents the London method. 



Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 




I 



In the fore-quarter, No. 1, is the shoulder, 2 and 2 
the neck, after the shoulder has been taken off, and 3 the 
breast; and in the hind-quarter, 4 is the loin, which, 
when cut double, that is, partly from both sides of the 
carcass, is called a chine or saddle, and 5 is the leg. A 
leg of mutton in London is cut short ; a haunch is cut 
long, taking in the hook-bone, similar to a haunch of 
venison. The flap of the loin is left attached to that part 
of the fore-quarter called the breast. The Scotch mode 
of cutting up mutton, is represented by figure 4, in 
IS* 



418 THE farmer's and 

which, in the hind-quarter, No. 3 is the gigot, and 2 the 
loin ; and in the fore, 3 the back-ribs, and 4 the- breast 
and shoulders. The gigot is cut about half way between 
the leg and haunch of the London method ; and the fore- 
quarter is cut right through the shoulders in two places, 
called back-ribs and breast. 

Shoulders of mutton are never cut off in Scotland be- 
fore being cooked, except by keepers of eating-houses : but 
the London plan of cutting mutton is decidedly the best, 
the shoulder forming an excellent roast, and the best end 
of the neck-piece being admirably suited for chops. 

The different joints of mutton vary almost as much in 
price in London as pieces of beef. The leg is sometimes 
sold as high as lOd. a pound, while the breast of the same 
sheep will only fetch 4d. or 5d. ; and if, in the wholesale 
market, the whole carcass is sold at 6d. a pound, the hind- 
quarter will be worth 7d. and the fore only 5d. From 
these facts it is obvious, that it is the interest of the ship- 
per only to send hind-quarters of mutton to London, for 
which 7d. a pound may be easily obtained, and a ready 
market for them in the west-end butchers, who seldom 
deal in fore-quarters. The fore-quarter should be sold at 
home ; hence realizing as much for them as they could 
fetch in London, besides saving on them the freight, com- 
mission, and wharfage. They form excellent joints for 
tradesmen's families, and are, in fact, generally preferred 
by them to the hind-quarters, which are considered dry 
eating, and certainly do not make as good broth as the 
fore-quarter. Besides the saving of room in packing the 
hind-quarters, they would run no risk of being stained 
when sent by themselves, as the staining generally arises 
from blood oozing out of the veins in the fore-quarter. 

Lamb is cut up in London in much the same manner 
as mutton, excepting that the neck and breast, when the 
shoulder is taken off, is roasted whole, and the piece is 



I 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 419 

called ribs of lamb. In Scotland, lamb is cut up exaotlv 
as mutton. 

Veal is cut up in London in a different way from any 
other meat. The knife is drawn between the buttock and 
itch-bone, through the pope's eye, taking a sloping di- 
rection through the coarse end of the buttock, leaving a 
flap. The piece thus cut out is called d,' fillet of veal. It 
is like a round of beef with a part of the thin flank left to 
be skewered around it. The round bone is taken out, 
and stufling is put into its place. When the itch-bone 
and hook-bone are cut from the loin, the piece is called a 
chump of veal. The hind-quarter of veal thus consists of 
fillet, chump, loin, and leg. The fore-quarter is cut in 
the same manner as mutton, having shoulder, breast, 
and neck. In Scotland, veal is cut very much like 
mutton. 

The London mode of cutting up pork, is the same as 
the Scotch mode of cutting up mutton, so fig. 2 will illus- 
trate the mode ; in which, in the hind-quarter, No. 1 is 
the leg, and 2 is the loin ; in the fore, 3, back-rib, chine, 
or hand ; and 4, breast and shoulders, spring or belly. 
The spring is used for pickling, and the hand for roasting, 
and for chops, or sausages. In Scotland, the hind-quar- 
ter consists of leg and loin, and the fore of back-ribs and 
breast. For pickling or roasting, pork is cut in the hind- 
quarter like that of English mutton, and in the fore like 
that of Scotch. In both countries, the ham is cut out 
alike. 

CEMENTS 

Of various kinds should be kept for occasional slight 
purposes, or for mending furniture. Of the first, flour paste 
is well known ; if required to be stronger than usual, a 
little glue may be boiled in it : some put powdered rosin 
in it. White of egg, or a solution of glue and strong gum- 



420 THE farmer's and 

water, are good cements. A paste made of linseed meal 
dries very hard, and adheres firmly. A soft cement is 
made of yellow wax melted with its weight of turpentine, 
and a little Venetian red to give it color. This., when 
cold, is as hard as soap, but can be softened by the warmth 
of the hand, and is very useful to stop up cracks j and is 
better to cover the corks of bottles sent to a distance than 
sealing-wax or hard cement. Plaster of Paris may serve 
as an occasional cement. 

ROUGH CASTING. 

This is a cheap and durable methodof finishing walls in- 
stead of stucco, and is well calculated to protect them from 
the effects of the weather, but is chiefly employed in small 
nouses and cottages in the country, built of rough stone or 
rubble. There are two kinds of rough cast. In the first, 
the wall receives a coat of lime and hair laid .on smooth ; 
and as fast as a certain portion of it is covered, the rough 
cast is thrown or splashed against the wet mortar with a 
large trowel. This rough cast is made by reducing very 
fine gravel, or coarse sand, to a uniform size by sifting or 
skreening, and washing the earth away from it. This is 
mixed with newly slacked lime and water to the consist- 
ence of thick cream. When the plasterer has covered a 
part of the wall in the manner mentioned, he brushes it 
over with a whitewash brush, dipped into the pail with the 
rough cast, so as to lay the whole smooth and even. The 
intense white of the lime is unpleasant to a person of taste, 
although in some parts of the country, many delight in it ; 
but this white glare may be easily softened, and a stone 
color produced, by putting into the mixture a sufficient 
quantity of yellow, or stone ochre, or Spanish brown, or 
ochre with brown or black, to produce the desired tint. 
It will be necessary to try the color on a board or a part 
of the wall, and to let it dry to determine the exact tint, 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 421 

and to put more color or more lime and sand till the tint 
be adjusted. Either a sufficient quantity should be made 
for the whole building, or very great care must be taken 
to get the same tint in every quantity that is used, or the 
coloring will look patchy ; and it is to be observed, that 
the tint given must be very light, otherwise it may be 
worse than pure white. 

ANOTHER METHOD OF ROUGH CASTING. 

Upon the first coat of lime and hair there is thrown, 
while it is yet in a soft state, a quantity of very small an- 
gular fragments of stone, as limestone, granite, etc. These 
fragments being pressed stick in the mortar, and are firmly 
fixed there when the latter is dry and hard. This mode 
is much practiced in Bristol, where broken spar from the 
quarries gives a rich glittering appearance to the houses 
done with it. 

COLORING FOR WALLS. 

A coloring for outside walls may be made of fresh- 
slaked lime, to which a little sulphate of iron added will 
give a warm tint. This coloring is useful for a brick 
house that has become black and dirty : it should be done 
before the wall is fresh pointed, and if the tint be well 
chosen, the house will look nearly as if just built. 

Painting stone or stuccoed walls with oil colors has been 
found sometimes a good practice, and preserves them very 
much. 

Lime-whiting is a wash, made by mixing quick-lime 
with water alone, and laying it on with a large flat brush ; 
it is used for areas and similar places. If required not to 
be capable of being rubbed off*, some coarse size may be 
added. 

An excellent lime-wash for walls, or boarding of out- 
houses or cottages, may be made as follows : Half fill 



422 THE FARMER S AND 

with water a tub of six or eight gallons, and add to it as 
much of clean, sharp, and rather coarse sand, and of lime 
fresh burnt, in about equal quantities, as much as will 
make, when it is well stirred up and mixed, a wash of 
about the thickness of cream. Lay this on the walls with 
a large brush, taking care to stir up the mixture every 
time the brush is dipt into it, so as to take up as much 
sand as possible. The more fresh the lime the better, 
which, if good and proper for the purpose, will make the 
water hot. 

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER, 

Is mixing the colors up with size instead of oils, as a 
vehicle. Some balls of fine whiting are laid to soak in 
water over night ; and the size, rendered liquid by warm- 
ing in a pipkin, is poured in, and well stirred up with the 
whiting. Some colors, finely ground, are added, accord- 
ing to the tints required. This kind of painting is much 
cheaper than oil color, and has no gloss whatever ; but, 
though it looks extremely well if kept clean, it has the in- 
convenience of being easily stained ; and, as it does not 
bear washing, any foul marks cannot be removed, neither 
can they be painted over, as the color cannot be exactly 
matched again, and any attempt to touch them with paint 
would only increase the evil. It must be done upon very 
smooth and dry plastered walls, or upon papered walls. 
Woodwork is never painted in distemper, as it would not 
form a good preservative ; nor can it be employed in out- 
side work. It demands, like flatting, to be laid on with 
dispatch and dexterity — not to be streaky and uneven. 
If possible, the whole side of a room should be covered, 
before any one part has quite time to be dry ; for this, 
sufficient color should be mixed up, and a sufficient num- 
ber of hands employed. 

Various tints in distemper may be made as follows: 



I 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 423 

Straw colors ; with whiting, masticot, and Dutch pink ; or 
with whiting, yellow ochro, and a little Venetian red. 
Fawn color ; whiting, Venetian red, and a little black or 
burnt umber ; or white and burnt sienna. Grass ; white 
and verditure, with Venetian red ; or with white, Venetian 
red, and Prussian blue. Pea green ; with white and Olym- 
pian green ; or with white, yellow ochre, Prussian blue, 
and raw umber. Olive green ; with white, Prussian blue 
and burnt umber, and yellow ochre. 

Those who wish to paint in distemper must practice 
mixing up the colors, which is more difficult than in oil, 
because the tints dry much lighter than they appear when 
wet. It is necessary, therefore, in order to ascertain what 
color a certain mixture will produce, to paint a slip of 
paper over with it, and dry it at the fire to see the tint ; 
if this be neglected, the operator will be entirely deceived 
with respect to the color of his painting. Nevertheless, 
it is so easily done, that any one possessed of a little in- 
genuity may paint over a small room ; a circumstance 
worth knowing, where cleanliness with economy is a great 
object : and it has the advantage of giving little or no of- 
fensive smell during the operation, and for some time af 
terward, as oil paint does, but may be begun and finished 
in a day or two. Two coats are generally necessary to 
cover completely. 

When old plastering has become discolored by stains, 
and it is desired to have it painted in distemper ; it is ad- 
visable to give the surface, when properly cleansed off 
and prepared, one coat at least of white lead in oil, with 
some spirits of turpentine, which will generally fix all 
old stains that would otherwise come through ; and, when 
quite dry, this will take the water-colors very kindly. 

When we reflect upon the great importance of cleanliness 
in our dwellings, the value of painting, both in oil and in 
distemper, should appear striking. 



424 THE FARMER'S AND 

SUBSTITUTE FOR SIZE. 

A very good substitute for size can be prepared from 
potatoes. Make starch from the potatoes in the usual 
manner, mix the whiting and water to the proper consist- 
ence, and add the starch. This has the advantage of 
being wholly without smell, and is also beautifully 
white. It forms an excellent material for whitening ceil- 
ings. It may be observed that, as whiting is only washed 
chalk, the latter, pounded very fine, may be made shift 
with, when whiting cannot be procured. 

MILK PAINT. 

A paint has been used in Europe with success, made 
from milk and lime, that dries quicker than oil paint, and 
has no smell. It is made in the following manner : Take 
fresh curds, and bruise the lumps on a grinding-stone, or 
in an earthen pan, or mortar, with a spatula or strong spoon. 
Then put them into a pot with an equal quantity of lime, 
well slacked with water, to make it just thick enough to 
be kneaded. Stir this mixture without adding more water, 
and a white-colored fluid will soon be obtained, which will 
serve as a paint. It may be laid on with a brush with as 
much ease as varnish, and it dries very speedily. It must 
however be used the same day it is made, for if kept till 
next day it will be too thick : consequently no more must 
be mixed up at one time than can be laid on in a day. If 
any color be required, any of the ochres, as yellow ochre, 
or red ochre, or umber, may be mixed with it in any pro- 
portion. Prussian blue would be changed by the lime. 
Two coats of this paint will be sufficient, and when quite 
dry, it may be polished with a piece of woollen cloth, or 
similar substance, and it will become as bright as varnish. 
It will only do for inside work ; but it will last longer if 
varnished over with white of egg after it has been polisher^. 



425 

The following recipe for milk paint is given in " Smith's 
Art of House-painting." Take of skim-milk, nearly 
two quarts ; of fresh-slacked lime, about six ounces and 
a half; of linseed oil four ounces, and of whiting three 
pounds ; put the lime into a stone vessel, and pour upon 
itasufRcientquantity ofmilkto form a mixture resembling 
thin cream ; then add the oil, a little at a time, stirring it 
with a small spatula ; the remaining milk is then to be 
added, and lastly the whiting. The milk must on no ac- 
count be sour. Slake the lime by dipping the pieces in 
water, out of which it is to be immediately taken, and left 
to slack in the air. For fine white paint, the oil of cara- 
away is the best, because colorless ; but with ochres, the 
commonest oils maybe used. The oil, when mixed with 
the milk and lime, entirely disappears, and is totally dis- 
solved by the lime, forming a calcareous soap. The 
whiting or ochre is to be gently crumbled on the surface 
of the fluid, which it gradually imbibes, and at last sinks : 
at this period it must be well stirred in. This paint may 
be colored like distemper, or size-color, with levigated 
charcoal, yellow ochre, etc., and used in the same manner. 
The quantity here prescribed is sufficient to cover twenty 
square yards with the first coat, and will cost about three, 
half- pence a yard. The same paint will do for out-door 
work, by the addition of two ounces of slacked lime, two 
ounces of linseed oil, and two ounces of white Burgundy 
pitch : the pitch to be melted in a gentle heat with the oil, 
and then added to the smooth mixture of the milk and lime. 
In cold weather it must be mixed warm, to facilitate its 
incorporation with the milk. 

MENDING CHINA. 

When holes are required to be drilled in china or earth- 
enware for the purpose of riveting it when broken, procure 
a three-cornered file, and harden it completely by making 



426 THE FARMER S AND 

the end red-hot, and plunging it into cold water ; then 
grind the point quite sharp on a grindstone, and afterward 
on an oil stone. Then, with the point of this tool, pick 
repeatedly on the spot to be bored, taking care not to use 
too much violence, lest the object should break. In a 
short time, or in a few minutes, by a continuance of the 
operation, a small conical piece will be forced out, not 
bigger than a pin's head, and the hole may afterward be 
widened, by introducing the point, and working the file 
round. 

The best cement for broken china or glass, is that sold 
under the name of the diamond cement, which is color- 
less, and resists moisture. This is made by soaking 
isinglass in water till it is soft, and then dissolving it in 
proof spirit. Add to this a little gum ammoniac, or gal- 
banum and mastic, both dissolved in as little alcohol as 
possible. When the cement is to be used, it must be 
gently liquefied, by placing the phial containing it in 
boiling water. The phial must be well closed by a good 
cork, not by a glass stopper, as this may become fixed. 
It is applied to the broken edges with a camel's-hair pencil. 

When the objects are not to be exposed to moisture, 
white of egg alone, or mixed with finely-sifted quicklime 
will answer pretty well. Shell-lac, dissolved in spirits of 
wine, is better. 

A very strong cement for earthenware is made by boil- 
ing slices of skim-milk cheese with water, into a paste, 
and then grinding it with quicklime in a marble mortar, 
or on a slab with a mallet. 

CUTTING GLASS. 

Panes, or flat pieces of glass, may be divided, when a 
glazier's diamond is not at hand, by making a notch with 
a file, and carrying a piece of hot charcoal in the line in 
which it is wished the fracture should proceed. The 



427 

chai'coal must be kept alive with the breath. A red-hot 
iron will also do. 

VARIETIES OF CHEESE. 

Cheshire Cheese. — This cheese is famous for its rich 
quality and fine piquant flavor. It is made of entire new 
milk, the cream not being taken off. The cheeses are 
generally of very large size, usually about sixty pounds 
weight, and some have been made of one, or even two, 
hundred weight. Each cheese is usually made of the 
produce of one day's milking, from herds of from one to 
two hundred cows, who feed in rich pastures on some of 
the finest land in England. Their excellence must be 
attributed to the goodness of the n^ilk, their size and age, 
and the skill employed in their manufacture. The color 
is not entirely natural ; but a yellow tint is given by 
arnotto, marigolds, or carrots. It is said, that some in- 
crease the richness and mellowness of the cheese by add- 
ing beef-suet, or any other wholesome and sweet fat well 
clarified, which is poured into and mixed with the curd. 

Gloucester Cheese is much milder in its taste than the 
Cheshire. There are two kinds of Gloucester cheese, 
single and double. Single Gloucester is made of skim- 
milk, or of the milk deprived of half the cream ; of course 
it is not very rich, but is often of good flavor. Double 
Gloucester is a cheese that pleases almost every palate ; 
it is made of the whole milk and cream, and is a fat cheese, 
usually the kind employed for toasting, though the single 
often toasts very well. These cheeses are made of vari- 
ous sizes, the single generally eight to the cwt., and very 
thin, and the double four to the cwt., and at least twice as 
thick. As the two kinds sometimes resemble each other 
considerably, some honest farmers stamp the figure of a 
heart upon the single Gloucester, to distinguish it from the 
double. The true characteristics of Gloucester cheese 



428 THE farmer's and 

consist in its great richness, together with the mildness of 
its flavor, and that smooth, waxy texture which makes it 
cut, even in thin slices, without crumbing as Cheshire 
cheese is apt to do. Its oily matter is retained in toasting, 
by softening without being burned. 

Stilton Cheese. — This, from its peculiar richness and 
flavor, has been called the Parmesan of England. Its 
name is derived from having been the first made at Stilton 
in Leicestershire, though it is now manufactured very 
generally throughout the counties of Cambridge, Hun- 
tingdon, Rutland, and Northampton. It is made by adding 
the cream of one day to the entire milk of the next. The 
cheeses are all of a size, from six to eight pounds weight, 
and are of acylindricallbrm, made in a deep vat, and are 
not considered to be sufficiently mellow until they are two 
years old, nor ripe until they exhibit spots of blue in the 
interior, marking the commencement of decay. It is said 
that some keep them in warm damp cellars to accelerate 
the ripening. The blue part is of a peculiar nature, dif- 
ferent, it is said, from the common blue mould of cheese. 
The decay should not be advanced beyond a certain point. 
A variety of Stilton, but not so rich or of so fine a flavor 
as the last, is made in a net, and of the form of a pine 
cone, the net impressing lines on its surface. 

Coitenham Cheese, made near a town of that name in 
Cambridgeshire, is a thicker kind of cream cheese than 
Stilton. Its superior delicacy and flavor are attributed to 
the fragant herbage on the commons where the cows are 
pastured. 

Sage Cheese, called also green cheese, is made chiefly 
in the vales of Gloucester and Wiltshire, by coloring 
some curd with bruised sage, marigold leaves and parsley, 
and mixing this with some uncolored curd ; the whole is 
then made into a cheese., which, of course, exhibits a mot- 
tled appearance. 



THE emigrant's hand-book. 4!28t 

Among the Romans, it was a practice to flavor cheese 
with thyme and other sweet herbs ; and this custom was 
continued during the middle ages. We are told, that the 
Emperor Charlemange. arriving at a bishop's palace on a 
fast day, could get nothing but bread and cheese. The 
prelate, observing the king picking out with his knife small 
specks, which he mistook for impurities in the cheese, in- 
formed his guest that they were parsley seeds. The mon- 
arch tasted them and liked them so much, that he requested 
the prelate to send him an annual supply of cheese pre- 
pared in this manner. 

Chedder Cheese is not exclusively made at the village 
of Chedder, in the Mendip Hills, Somersetshire. A great 
deal of the same kind is also made round Bridgewater, 
and in the marshes round Glastonbury. The cheese is 
peculiar, much resembling Parmesan ; it has a very 
agreeable taste and flavor, and has a spongy appearance, 
the eyes being filled with a limpid and rich, but not ran- 
cid, oil. The cheeses are generally large. But little of 
the prime Chedder cheese is made, that generally sold 
for it not being genuine, and is inferior. 

Brickbat Cheese. — There is nothing remarkable in this 
except its form. It is made by turning with rennet a 
mixture of cream and new milk. The curd is put into a 
wooden vessel, the shape of a brick, and is then pressed 
and dried the usual way. It is best made in Sep^embe^, 
and is ready in six months. 

Dunlop Cheese is famous in Scotland : it is so called 
from the parish of Dunlop in Ayrshire, where it was first 
or best made, and where the pastures are very rich ; but 
it is now manufactured in other parts of Ayrshire. The 
best is made entirely from new milk, and it has a pecul- 
iarly mild and rich taste ; but there is nothing remarkable 
in the manner of making it. 

In some parts of England they never churn the milk, 



480 THE farmer's and 

but only the cream ; consequently they make little but- 
ter-milk, because the servants will not eat this, though 
they have no objection to skim-milk. In Scotland and 
Ireland, on the contrary, they churn all the milk, and 
have of course much butter-milk, which is much relished 
there. 

In the Highlands of Scotland, they make a cheese for 
the table of a very high gout, an almost Tartarian pre- 
paration, by allowing the milk to become sour, and to 
coagulate of itself, which gives a flavor even more pun- 
gent than that of goat's-milk cheese. 

What is called in London new cheese, is made chiefly in 
Lincolnshire, and is either made all of cream, or, like the 
Stilton, by adding the cream of one day's milking to the 
milk that comes immediately from the cow : they are ex- 
tremely thin, and are compressed gently two or three 
times, turned for a iew days, and then sent to be disposed 
of to be eaten new with radishes, salad, etc. It may be 
made in the following manner : Warm some cream, add 
rennet in the proportion of a spoonful to a pint, or more 
if necessary. Put the curd into a sieve, having a cloth 
at the bottom ; when it has remained twenty-four hours, 
transfer it to a cheese vat, and cover it with a wet cloth 
and board ; in about two hours it may be used. 

Skim-milk Cheese. — Cheese made from curd of skim- 
milk, when all the cream has been separated, has in 
it no butyraceous matter, but is the caseous substance 
in a pure state, resembling very nearly white of eggs, or 
albumen, or perhaps more nearly the gluton of wheat. 
This cheese from skim-milk only, is made in those dis- 
tricts of England where butter is the chief object of the 
dairy-man, as in Essex and Suffolk. What is made in 
England of this kind has scarcely any flavor, and dries 
almost as hard as a horn, but it is as digestible as the 
softer cheese, though not very palatable. It is, however, 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 431 

useful as part of ship stores, being less liable to spoil on 
a sea voyage than richer cheese, particularly in a warm 
climate ; on the subject of skim-milk cheese Dr. Anderson, 
celebrated for his writings on agriculture, observes, that it 
is an erroneous idea to suppose that the agreeable taste of 
cheese depends solely upon the quantity of oily or fat mat- 
ter it may contain. Parmesan cheese is made of skim- 
milk ; so are the Dutch cheeses, which many consider as 
very pleasant tasted. He has seen cheese made of skim- 
milk, that ate exactly like the finest cream cheese ; 
and he considers that what is called richness in cheese, 
depends as much upon the particular mode in which they 
are manufactured, as upon the materials of which cheese 
consists. In confirmation of this opinion he remarks, that 
though the taste of Double Gloucester differs so much 
from Cheshire cheese, yet they are both made from the 
same kind of milk. 

Parmesan Cheese. — This most celebrated of all cheese 
(s made in the duchy of Parma and Piacenza, and in va- 
rious parts of Lombardy : at present, the district of Lodi 
!s in high repute for it. It was formerly supposed to be 
made from goat's milk, and the high flavor which it has, 
IS supposed by some to be owing to the rich herbage of 
the meadows of the Po, where the cows are pastured ; and 
by others, solely to the process by which it is manufac- 
tured, a particular account of which may be seen in 
Cadell's " Journey in Italy, 1818." Half the milk has 
stood sixteen or seventeen hours, and the other half has 
stood only six. The milk is heated and coagulated in a 
cauldron ; and without being taken out of the cauldron, 
the curd is broken very small by an implement consisting 
of a stick with cross wires ; it is again heated, or rather 
scalded, till the curd, now a deposition from the whey, 
has attained a considerable degree of firmness ; it is then 
taken out, drained, salted, and pressed ; and in forty days 



432 THE farmer's and 

it is fit to put into the cheese loft. The Parmesan is kept 
for three or four years, and none is carried to market till 
it is at least six months old. Another account of the 
manner of making it is to be found in the seventh vol. of 
the Bath Society's papers, and in the second vol. of Mr- 
Arthur Young's " Travels in France." 

Dutch Cheese. — In Holland thfy coagulate their milk 
with muriatic acid insteadof rennet, which occasions that 
pungent taste peculiar to this cheese, and preserves it 
from mites. The Gonda is most celebrated, which is 
made with extraordinary care. A detailed description of 
the mode of making it is in the Jour. Agri. des Pays 
Bas ; and is quoted in the excellent work by Margaret 
Dodds. The best Dutch cheese is made in the environs 
of Leyden, at Eidam and Friezland, where also a very 
lage quantity is manufactured for England, of skim- 
milk, chiefly for sea stores. In the Texel, they make 
cheese from ewes' milk ; a good deal of Dutch cheese, 
of a round form, comes now to London ; it is of a low 
price, and frequently of very good quality. 

Swiss Cheese. — Switzerland has been long celebrated 
for its cheese : several varieties of cheese are produced 
there, and although made of skim-milk, or partially 
skim-milk, yet are they remarkable for their fine flavor, 
which is partly owing to the herbage of the mountain 
pastures. That denominated from Gruyere, a bailiwick 
in the canton of Fribourg, is best known in England. 
This is flavored by the dried herb of melilotos officinalis^ 
in powder. The cheeses weigh from forty to sixty 
pounds each, and require to be kept in a damp place, and 
washed frequently with white wine to preserve it from 
the depredations of insects. Until of late, the manufac- 
ture qf this cheese was limited to a few wealthy persons : 
as it is necessary for its quality that the cheese should be 
very large, and that the milk should be coagulated on the 



I 



THE EMIGRANT 9 HAND-BOOK. 483 

day that it was taken from the cow, it was only by keep- 
ing a large number of cows that the manufacture could 
be carried on ; and the owner of a few cows only was una- 
ble to succeed. At present, however, it appears that cheese 
dairies have been established by the poor peasantry join- 
ing together, and thus competing with the more wealthy. 
Another excellent cheese is made at Neufchatel. The 
Schahziegar cheese is made by the mountaineers of the 
canton of Glarus. It has a marbled appearance and aro- 
matic flavor, from the bruised leaves of the melilot. The 
milk is exposed to the temperature of 46® for five or six 
days, when the cream is completely formed, and is taken 
off. The skim-milk is coagulated by sour milk, and 
not by rennet, and the curd thus obtained is pressed 
strongly in bags, and when sufficiently pressed and dried, 
it is ground to powder, salted and mixed with the bruised 
flowers or seeds of the melilotos officinalis, and afterward 
again pressed into cheese. The entire separation of the 
cream, or unctuous part of the milk, is essential. Some 
Swiss is also manufactured from a mixture of ewe-milk 
with that of the cow. 

Westphalia Cheese is a skim-milk cheese, and is a re- 
markable instance of hov/ much the quality of the cheese 
depends upon the manufacture. It is described by some 
as being preferable to the Dutch, Swiss, and even Par- 
mesan, cheese. The cream is allowed to remain till the 
milk beneath is sub-acid ; it is then removed, and the 
milk placed near a fire to coagulate. The whey is next 
expressed from the curd, which is dried and crumbled be- 
tween the hands. It remains for several days, until the 
putrid fermentation commences ; but this is stopped by 
kneading it into balls with caraways, salt, butter, pound- 
ed pepper, and cloves. Sometimes these balls, or little 
cheeses, are hung up in the smoke of a wood fire. 

Cheese from milk and potatoes, is manufactured in 
19 



434 

Thuiingia and Saxony. The best potatoes are half 
dressed in steam, peeled, and reduced to a pulp. Five 
pounds of this are mixed with from one to ten pounds of 
sweet curd, and kneaded together, some salt being added : 
after lying for a few days, this is again kneaded, and i 
then pressed into little baskets, where the superfluous 
moisture drains off; the cheese is then formed into balls, 
and then dried in the shade. These cheeses keep well i 
in the dry, and their quality improves with age, with the 
advantage that they generate no vermin ; their taste is 
said to exceed the best cheese made in Holland. 

Cream cheese, although so called is not properly cheese, 
but is nothing more than cream dried sufficiently to be| 
cut with a knife. To make it, a quantity of good sweet I 
cream is put into a cheese vat, with green rushes sewed 
together on purpose, at the bottom of the vat, which must 
have a sufficient number of holes to let the whey which 
drains off, pass freely away. On the top of this cheese j 
are likewise laid rushes, or long grass of the Indian corn, 
in the same manner as at the bottom, in order to allow it 
to be turned without being handled. It is usual to make 
these cheeses from one inch, to one inch and a half in 
thickness. The thinner they are made, the sooner they] 
are ready. It is kept in a warm place to sweat and ri- 
pen ; but extremes of heat or cold are injurious, and some 
judgment must be used in managing it. 

SAGE. 

There are several sorts, as the red, the green, the small 
leaved, and the broad-leaved balsamic. Its chief use in 
cookery is in stuffings and sauces, to correct the too great' 
lusciousness of strong meats, as goose, duck, or pork : it3' 
taste is warm, bitterish and aromatic, qualities which de- 
pend upon an essential oil. The red has the most agreeable i 
and fullest flavor for this purpose ; the green is the next ; : 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND BOOK. 435 

the two last are used in medicine. Sage has had great 
reputation formerly, on account of its medicinal qualities ; 
but at present, tliese do not appear to be much regarded. 
It possesses, however, some aromatic and astringent pow- 
ers ; and a decoction, or sage tea, is found serviceable in 
debility of the stomach, and in nervous cases. The Chinese 
sometiriics prefer it, it is said, to their own tea. It is useful 
as a gargle in sore throat, and it is grateful and cooling. 
The broad-leaved balsamic species is the most effiacious 
for its medical qualities, and as a tea herb. It is also in- 
troduced into cheese. 

MINT. 

There are several species of mint that grow wild, found 
chiefly in low moist situations, and they are likewise cul- 
tivated. They are all distinguished by a well known and 
peculiar aromatic flavor, and some are employed in culi- 
nary preparations, others yield a highly odoriferous and 
pungent essential oil by distillation. None of them are 
in the least poisonous ; but they are very different both in 
appearance and their uses. 

Spearmint. — This is the common mint cultivated in our 
gardens, and employed in different processes of cookery, 
as having the most agreeable flavor ; the leaves are 
sometimes boiled in certain dishes, and afterward with- 
drawn. They likewise form an ingredient in soups, and 
are sometimes used in spring salads. They are also 
dried for the winter, and in this manner lose none of their 
flavor. Mint is stomachic and antispasmodic, and is use- 
ful in flatulencies ; these qualities probably led, independ- 
ently of its agreeable flavor, to its universal use in pea 
soup, in which it is a valuable ingredient. 

Peppermint. — This is cultivated entirely for the essen- 
tial oil distilled from it. Its taste is stronger, warmer, 
and more pungent than spearmint, and leaves a sort 9( 



436 THE farmer's and 

coolness on the tongue after tasting it. It yields a little 
camphor, to which its taste is partly owing, and its medi- 
cinal uses are well known. 

Pennyroyal mint, has a warm pungent flavor, but less 
agreeable than common mint. It is employed' in some 
particular dishes in cookery, and formerly chiefly for 
medical purposes, but is now little used. 

MARJORAM. 

There are several species of marjoram, but that which 
is preferred for cookery, and which is cultivated in our 
gardens for this purpose, is the sioeet marjoram, also call- 
ed knotted marjoram. The leaves are dried as a season- 
ing herb, having an agreeable flavor. There is also a 
winter sweet marjoram, used for the same purposes. Pot 
marjoram, common or loild marjoram, is found growing in 
our fields. This has nearly the same flavor, but is in- 
ferior, and is only used when the others are not at hand. 
All these are favorite ingredients in soups, stuffings, etc. 

TANSY. 

Tansy grows wild, and is cultivated in gardens. Its 
leaves, having a powerful aromatic bitter, are sometimes 
chopped or bruised, to put into certain puddings, or the 
juice alone is so employed : its use is very ancient. There 
are three varieties ; the plain and curled leaved, and the 
variegated 

SAFFRON. 



It is now chiefly employed as a coloring matter fori 
cheese and butter. When good saffron has a beautiful ^ 
yellow color, and an agreeable odor, it yields its active 
principle, an essential oil, to water and spirit. Dr. A . T. ' 
Thomson, in his Materia Medica states, that it excites tha i 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 437 

the nerves of the stomach, and it is in some degree nar- 
cotic ; its incautious use has sometimes been attended 
with dangerous consequences. It is sometimes adultera- 
ted with safRower and maris^olds ; but the adulteration is 
easily detected, for the petals of these flowers will appear 
distinct from the stigmata of the crocus. 

RHUBARB. 

This is one of the most useful and best of all the pro- 
ductions of the garden that are put into pies and puddings. 
It was comparatively little known, till within the last 
twenty or thirty years, but it is now cultivated in almost 
every British garden. The part used is the foot-stalks of 
the leaves, which, peeled and cut into- small pieces, are 
put into tarts, either mixed with apples or alone. When 
quite young, they are much better not peeled. 

CORIANDER. 

This plant, of eastern origin, has been long cultivated 
for its seeds, which are highly aromatic, and form one of the 
less agreeable spices : they are employed by the distiller 
in flavoring spirits, by the confectioner for incrusting with 
sugar, and by the druggist in medicine. Its tender leaves 
are also sometimes used in soups and salads, and in Peru 
the seeds are employed in great excess to season their 
food. 

CARAWAY. 

The caraway is found growing in meadows. It is 
likewise cultivated for its seeds. The seeds have a plea- 
sant aromatic odor, and a sweetish, warm, pungent taste, 
depending upon an essential oil, which is easily extract- 
ed by rectifie-d spirit, and partly so by water. They are 
employed in confectionary in cakes, biscuits, etc.; in 
medicine, as a carminative, and for flavoring spirituous 



438 THE farmer's and 

liquors ; and the young leaves are sometimes used in 
soups : formerly the roots were eaten as parsnips, and by 
some are thought to be not inferior. 

CAMOMILE. 

This very useful, and generally used, aromatic bit- 
ter, is cultivated on account of its flowers, an infusion of 
which forms an excellent stomachic, known by the name 
of camomile tea. Though the double sort is more raised 
by gardeners, the single is the best and strongest as a 
medicine. The flowers are kept dried in bags. The 
active principle of camomile is a resinous substance call- 
ed piperma, discovered by Dr. A. T. Thomson. 

WORMWOOD. 

The intense bitter of this plant is so great as to render it 
proverbial. Its odor is strong, and though fragrant, yet 
to many persons it is disagreeable and nauseous. It grows 
wild but is likewise cultivated for several purposes, though 
less used than formely. It has tonic properties, and is 
sometimes employed as a stomachic. The French beve- 
rage or liquor, called eau d^absinthe, thought to create an 
appetite, is prepared from wormwood, by the addition of 
alcohol and subsequent distillation. The active part seems 
to be the extractive, for the essential oil which it con- 
tains is not in the least bitter. Before the use of hops 
was known, wormwood was much employed in the com- 
position of beer or ale : for this purpose it was gathered 
when in seed, and dried : some prefer its flavor to that of 
the hop. 

BALM. 

Balm, formerly much employed in medicine, is still found 
to make a very grateful and useful drink in fevers. The 
herb, in its natural state, has a weak aromatic taste, and 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 439 

a pleasant smell somewhat of the lemon kind. The leaves 
may be kept dried in the sun or oven, and preserved for 
use. 

PURIFYING WATER. 

As it is sometimes impossible to procure water pure and 
fit for domestic purposes, it is important to know by what 
method it may be purified, as it is called, that is, deprived 
of those substances which contaminate it ; for it is to be 
remembered that water, in itself, is necessarily pure and 
incapable of change, and that when it is unfit for use the 
cause must be attributed to the presence of foreign mat- 
ters ; in other words, substances which do not belong to 
it. 

Sponge may he employed for filtering, by compressing it 
into the neck of some vessel made to hold the water ; this 
substance is very convenient, as it may be easily taken 
out, cleaned, and replaced. 

But the best material for filtering water is charcoal. 
This substance not only acts mechanically by its porosity 
as a strainer, but it has the valuable and peculiar quality 
of preventing putrefaction, by absorbing at once the gas- 
eous matter that is generated, and thus impeding decom- 
position. Sailors have long been acquainted with this 
property of charcoal, and they have found it to be an ex- 
cellent practice to char the inside of the casks in which 
they take water to sea in long voyages. It was once 
supposed that the chief use of this was to prevent the wa- 
ter from contracting a disagreeable taste from the wood , 
but it is now known that it not only effects this, but that it 
acts much more powerfully, by absorbing all putrid mat- 
ter and offensive odor, and thus rendering, in a considera- 
ble degree, even foul and unwholesome water salubrious 
and transparent. 

The best charcoal for this purpose is that produced by 



440 



THE FARMER S AND 



burning animal substances, called animal charcoal, which 
is more effective than vegetable charcoal. Charcoal has 
likewise the property of absorbing coloring matter ; bran- 
dy may be rendered white hy being passed through it, 
and port wine has been rendered pale : it is also used for 
whitening the syrup of sugar. 

Nature effects filtration hy means of beds of sand. — 
Water that has percolated through these issues is perfectly 
transparent and clear, and freed from everything except 
what it holds from solution. Art, imitating nature, em- 
ploys sand for the same purpose, and filtering beds upon 
a great scale have been formed for purifying water, the 
supply of towns, and for domestic purposes. Little more, 
indeed, seems necessary for rendering water perfectly 
pure, where the impurities are merely of a mechanical 
nature. 

To filter water hy means of sand, it is the practice in many 
places, particularly in France, to 
construct cisterns in the cellars, 
and to divide them into two une- 
qual parts by a partition, a, that 
does not reach quite to the bot- 
tom. The largest of these divisions, 
h, is half filledwith layers of sand 
of different degrees of coarseness, and into this the water 
to be filtered is put ; in passing down through the sand, 
all the mechanical impurities are detained, and it rises 
into the other division, c, perfectly clear. This method 
is so simple, that it may be practiced anywhere without 
difficulty. The shape and size of the cistern are quite 
immaterial. If a cock is placed in the smaller division 
to draw off the water, it should be fixed a little way above 
the bottom, lest there might be some slight sediment 
which would be disturbed. It is obvious that the sand 




441 

can only answer the purpose for a certain time ; for it 
must become clogged with the impurities and sediment 
from the foul water, and will require renewal more or 
less often, in proportion to the foufness of the water. The 
sand should be well washed before it is used, and it should 
contain no earthy matter, as this would defeat the object 
of filtration. Clean sharp sand is best, and it should be 
separated by sieves into various degrees of coarseness, 
to place in different layers, the finest being put at the 
bottom. 

It may he remarked^ that when ivater is Jilieredhy nature 
through beds of sand, it ascends to the surface, by which 
the purification is more completely effected than by de- 
scent. In the latter case, some impurities might be forced 
through by the weight of the water, or by their own gra- 
vity ; but, in the former case, gravity must oppose the 
ascent of the impurities, which are therefore more likely 
to remain behind. Filters have been executed on this 
principle, by making the water pass upward through the 
sand and charcoal, or other filtering materials. 

A very simple apparatus of this kind was made long ago 
by M. Parrot, of Paris, which 
has been the origin of much 
of the recent apparatus for 
this purpose. As it may be 
very easily executed, it 
-^ might be sometimes useful 
to travellers, who may find 
it difficult, in some situa- 
tions, to procure pure water, a h c, represents a 
curved tube, either round or square, into which sand, or 
sand and charcoal, are put, up to the level of the dotted 
line at c. A little flannel bag is put into the end a, and 
water poured into this has its coarsest impurities retained 
by the flannel ; and in passing through the sand, in the 
19* 




442 



THE farmer's and 




lower part of the tube, and rising upward to h, is complete- 
ly purified, and drops into a vessel placed below. If 
found necessary, a piece of linen or muslin may be tied 
over the mouth, h, to prevent any particle of sand coming 
over. A tube of this kind, about three inches in diameter, 
will filter about three quarts of water in an hour. The 
longer the leg a, the more rapidly it will filter, from the 
pressure of the water. The sand should be made pretty 
compact, for the slower the passage of the water, the 
more it will be purified. 

Upon this principle, an improved mode of filtering has 
been effected in cisterns, namely, 
by forcing the water to ascend 
through the filter, instead of de- 
scending. Here the cistern has 
yL5»i two partitions, a and h. That 
^^ at a does not reach quite to the 
bottom, and the other has an apparatus at b. In the 
middle division, a piece of perforated metal, wood, or 
stone, or a cloth, is fixed a little above the bottom ; on 
this is placed a layer of small pebbles, then coarse sand 
and layers of charcoal, then finer sand and charcoal, the 
whole being covered by another cloth, also fixed just be- 
low the aperture h. The water to be filtered is put into 
the division a ; it then passes below the first partition, and 
by its pressure rises through the perforated plate c, and 
likewise through the pebbles, sand, and charcoal, and 
passing through the cloth above it, runs through an aper- 
ture in the partition h into the last division, from which it 
is drawn by a cock as it is wanted - 

A7i easy method of cleaning the filtering materials is by 
making the water pass through them in a contrary direc- 
tion to what it does when filtering. For example, suppo- 
sing, as we have just stated, the division a is that which 
receives the foul water, and b that which receives the 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 443 

purified water. Then, to clean the filtering apparatus, 
reverse the process, and fill the division h with unpurified 
water ; it will pass through the aperture in the partition 
h, and descend through the cloth, the sand, and perforated 
plate c, rising in the division a, and carrying with it all 
the impurities, which may be drawn off by a pipe fixed in 
the bottom. 

CHEMICAL TESTS FOR EXAMINING WATER. 

When good water is first taken up, it is perfectly clear 
and colorless ; but the examiner should not be satisfied 
with holding up a glassful between his eye and the light ; 
he should also pour some into a deep ale glass, into which 
he should look downward, when the slightest tinge from 
extraneous substances will appear. 

If the water be discolored in any manner, it is usually 
owing to some impurity mechanically suspended in it, 
and which may be removed by rest and filtration, in the 
manner already described : but the impurities may like- 
wise be dissolved in the water, in which case they will 
pass through the filter, which has no power of separating 
them. 

To determine whether the water contains lime in any 
form, the oxalic acid should be employed, as the best test 
for this earth. All waters containing lime are more or 
less injurious to health, affecting the kidneys if they are 
drank for any continuance. Some of the springs about 
London contain a great deal of sulphate of lime, and are 
unfit for washing, and would be unhealthy to drink. To 
explain the principle upon which oxalic acid proves the 
presence of lime, it must be observed, that lime has a 
stronger attraction for the oxalic than it has for any other 
acid ; therefore it will quit whatever acid it may be com- 
bined with in a dissolved state, and unite to the oxalic, 
forming an oxalate of lime^ which, being insoluble in 



444 THE farbier's and 

water, will fall down as a white precipitate. But instead 
of using pure oxalic acid, it is better to employ it as joined 
to ammonia, or the oxalate of ammonia. 

To detect the presence of iron in water, add to it tinc- 
ture of galls ; if there be iron, a black precipitate like ink 
will be perceived : but for this purpose the water must 
not be boiled, for in that case the carbonic acid would be 
driven off, and the iron would fall down, and would not 
be affected by the test. Prussiate of potash in the same 
case, will give a blue precipitate like Prussian blue. If 
this test give the same colored precipitates after the water 
has been boiled, then the iron is not in the state of a car- 
bonate, but is, most probably, a sulphate of iron. If it be 
required to determine whether the salt be a sulphate, add 
muriate or nitrate of barytes to some of the water, and if 
it be a sulphate, but not otherwise, a precipitate will 
appear. 

Vegetable or animal matter may be detected, by adding 
sulphuric acid and evaporating the water : if such matter 
be present, the water will become blackened. 

BREAD FROM THE BARK OF THE PINE. 

From the civilized state in which we now live, we can 
form but faint ideas of the necessitous situation under which 
many of the inhabitants of the globe exist, and in com- 
parison of whom our poorest cottagers may be considered 
in a state of ease. Von Bush informs us that, in the rigo. 
rous and unfertile climates of Norway and Lapland, ne- 
cessity obliges the inhabitants to make use of the inner 
bark of the common Scotch fir (Pinus syhestris) for food. 
In the spring season they cut down the older trees, and 
stripping off the bark, collect the. soft white succulent in. 
terior part, which in the early time of the year has a sweet 
milky juice in it, and is the new layer of wood in an in- 
cipent state ; when they have occasion to use it, they dry 



THE EBIIGRANt's HAND-BOOK. 445 

this at the fire, or bake it in an oven, till it becomes brittle, 
then beat it and grind it into meal, and after steeping the 
farinaceous part or flour in warm water, to lake off the 
resinous taste, they mix it with a small portion of oats, or 
moss, and make it into thin cakes, about an inch thick, 
which are baked for use. The poor inhabitants are some- 
times constrained to live upon this disagreeable food for a 
great part of the year. We learn from the same authority, 
that "in summer the Laplanders scarcely eat anything 
but fish from the fresh-water lakes, and drink with great 
eagerness the water in which the fish has been boiled. In 
winter they must put up with dried fish, and the innermost 
bark of the fir, which they strip off in the summer, divide 
it in long strips, and hang them in their dwellings to dry 
for winter stores. When used, these strips of bark are 
minced into small pieces along with the rein-deer tallow, 
and boiled together for several hours with water, till they 
form a thick broth." Dr. Prout suggests, with respect to 
this process, that during the long boiling, the lignin, or 
woody fibre may perhaps combine with the water, so as to 
form a kind of starch, which is soluble in the stomach ; 
but the precise nature of the change is not yet understood. 
The young shoots of the fir, stripped of their leaves, just 
as they begin to appear in the spring, are sought for with 
avidity by the children, and are very wholesome, form- 
ing an agreeable salad ; these are also stored in winter for 
the rein-deer. In the same countries, also, they dry the 
root of the water dragon, {Culla palustris) grind it to flour, 
and mix it with the above. The inner bark of the elm 
and of other trees, has been employed in the same man- 
ner. 

TO PRESERVE FISH. 

To preserve fish quite fresh, for a short time, requires 
even more care than meat. They should be kept in a 



446 

very cool place, an ice-house if possible ; but if that can- 
not be had, they should be laid upon a stone floor or shelf, 
and dipped in cold salt and water every night and morn- 
ing. If it is necessary to keej) them a few days longer, 
this may be done by immersing them in a pickle composed 
of equal quantities of vinegar, small-beer, and water. 

TO PRESERVE MEAT. 

The Moors of Africa preserve meat in the following 
manner : They cut into thin slices, beef, mutton, or 
camel's flesh, and after salting them well, suffer them to 
lie in the pickle twenty-four hours. The meat is then 
removed from the tubs or jars, and then put into others 
filled with fresh water ; and when it has remained there 
a night, it is taken out, and hung upon ropes to dry in 
the sun and air. When thoroughly dried and hard, it is 
cut into pieces two or three inches long, and thrown into 
a pan, or cauldron, which is kept ready, with boiled oil 
and suet sufficient to cover it ; thus it is boiled, till it be 
very clear and red on cutting it, when it is again taken 
out and set to drain. After having undergone this pro- 
cess, it stands to cool, while the jars are getting ready for 
storing it ; at the same time, the liquor in which it was 
fried is poured upon it, and as soon as it is thoroughly 
cold, the vessels are closely stopped. Preserved in this 
manner, it will remain hard, and keep two years ; indeed, 
the hardest is considered the best and most palatable. It 
is brought to table, sometimes fried with eggs and garlic, 
or stewed with a little lemon-juice poured on it. 

When meat is to be preserved a long time, the brine 
should consist of a saturated solution of salt. A common 
direction in books is, that the brine should be so strong 
that an egg will float in it ; but this is a very imperfect 
test of its strength, for an egg will not only float in a sat 
urated solution, but in one that has double its measure ol 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 447 

common water added to it ; and from observing this im- 
perfect direction, and making tlieir brine too weak, some 
persons have failed in preserving their meat. Indeed, it 
would be advisable that the brine should not only be as 
strong as it can be made, but that a little more salt should 
be added that can be dissolved ; because, as the meat is 
constantly giving out its juices up to a certain period, these 
juices will lower the strength of the brine below the pre- 
serving point ; but if there is an excess of salt present, it 
will dissolve in the juices given out, and thus the strength 
of the brine will be kept up. A saturated solution of salt 
is made by dissolving seven ounces and a half of salt, in 
an imperial pint of water at 60°. When the meat has 
lain SHfficiently in the brine, it is to be taken out, and 
packed in casks with dry salt between each layer of meat. 
A strong brine or pickle for preserving meat a long time, 
or for sea voyages, is made by boiling down the solution ; 
and the rule is, that the water should be evaporated till 
the salt begins to crystallize, which is known by a thin 
film of salt beginning to form on the surface when the 
liquid is on the fire ; the water is then completely satu- 
rated. 

The same pickle may be used repeatedly, provided it 
be boiled up occasionally, with additional salt to preserve 
its strength, as this is diminished by the combination of 
part of the salt with the meat, and by the dilution of the 
pickle by the juices extracted. In consequence of boil- 
ing, the albumen, which would cause the pickle to spoil 
by changing very soon, is coagulated, and rises to the 
surface in the form of scum, which must be carefully re- 
moved 

PORTABLE SOUP. 

Portable soup comes into this class of substances pre 
served as food by drying. The principles upon which it 



448 THE farmer's and 

is made are the same with that of manufacturing glue. 
The gelantine of meat is dissolved by boiling water ; and 
the water being afterward evaporated, the gelantine is 
Jeft in a solid state. Any fresh lean meat will answer for 
this purpose, but the fat should be cut away. Portable 
soup, made in large quantities, forms a valuable acquisi- 
tion to the traveller, and to those engaged in naval and 
military duties. 

Dr. Kitchner endeavoured to ascertain, by careful in- 
vestigation, the best and cheapest mode of making this soup. 
The legs and shins of beef he found to answer better than 
other meat, both in regard to quantity and flavor. If ex- 
pense is not a principal object, the addition of other meat, 
and the trimmings of poultry and game, together with lean 
ham, in the proportion of one pound to eight of beef, will 
greatly improve the flavor. Made without ham, the price 
of this essence in the shops is from 10s. to 12s. the pound ; 
made in a private kitchen, Dr. K. estimates the expense 
to be scarcely more than 3s. 6d. per pound. One ounce 
of this (2d.) will make a pint of broth ; double that quan- 
tity, with the addition of either thickening or flavoring 
ingredients, the same quantity of soup. 

To make Portable Soiqj. — Take a leg or shin of beef, 
weighing about ten pounds ; have it from a bullock re- 
cently killed ; break the bones, and put it into your soup- 
pot ; just cover it with water, and set it on the fire to 
heat gradually, till it nearly boils. It should boil for 
nearly an hour. When scujn rises, it should be carefully 
skimmed off, and a little cold water be poured in once or 
twice, which will cause more scum to rise on the sur- 
face, which must be again removed. When the scum 
has. ceased rising, let it boil for eight or nine hours, and 
then strain it through a hair-sieve into a stone jar, and 
place it where it will quickly cool. The next day, after 
removing every particle of fat, pour it quite through a 



449 

very fine sieve, or tamis, into a stew-pan, taking care 
that none of the settlings at the bottom go into the stew- 
pan. After adding a quarter of an ounce of black pep- 
percorns, let it boil briskly, the pan uncovered, until it 
begins to thicken, and is reduced to about a quart. All 
scum that rises must be removed as in the preceding pro- 
cess, but without adding water to it. When it begins 
to thicken, withdraw it from the brisk fire, and place it 
where it can continue to boil gently, until it becomes a 
a very thick syrup. Great care must be taken to pre- 
vent it burning, which would in one instant destroy the 
whole. Pour out a little in a spoon, to ascertain if it will 
jelly. If it does not, then boil it longer, and at length pour 
it into a little potting jar, about an inch and a half in 
depth and perfectly dry. These pots Dr. Kitchner re- 
commends, if the soup is intended for home consumption, 
and is sufficiently concentrated to keep for six months. 
If to be longer preserved, it may be put into bladders such 
as are used for the german sausages : or it may be dried 
in the form of cakes, by pouring it at first into a dish 
until cooled. When cold enough to turn out, weigh the 
cake, and divide it into pieces of an ounce, or half an 
ounce each ; place them in a warm room, and turn them 
twice a day for a week or ten days, by which time they 
will be thoroughly dried. If kept in a dry place, they 
may be preserved for years. 

Portable soup, besides being very serviceable to travel- 
lers, is also very convenient in country places, where it 
is difficult to have a supply of fresh meat, for making ex- 
tempore broths, sauces and gravies for hashed or stewed 
meat, etc. When they are to be used, half an ounce is 
put into a vessel with half a pint of boiling water, which 
is to be covered and set upon hot ashes, or put into a water- 
bath, for a quarter of an hour, until the whole is disolved- 
If seasoning of roots or herbs is required, they may be 



450 the; j*arbier's anij 

added. Boil an onion, with or without a bit of parsley 
and sweet herbs, and a few corns of allspice, or other spice, 
in the water you melt the soup in, and which may be fla- 
vored with mushroom catsup, essence of sweet herbs, or 
of celery, or anything else that is customary. 

As this portable soup is easily made, and is not only 
convenient in a family, but economical, since no more need 
be dissolved than is wanted, it is recommended that it be 
made at home, as affording the only certainty of the good- 
ness of the materials ; it may thus be made for less than 
half the price of that at which it is sold. 



A preparation is made in France, called " Gelatine 
hrut Jin,'' from bones ; the ends being cut off, and the 
bones cut down the middle to remove the fat, they are 
steeped in diluted muriatic acid for about ten days, which 
dissolves the solid part and leaves the gelatine. The acid 
being poured off, they are soaked afresh in weak acid for 
a day and a night, and then steeped in water some hours, 
renewing it five or six times until all the acid is washed 
out ; and finally, they are steeped in a very weak solution 
of sub-carbonate of soda, to neutralize what acid may yet 
remain. 100 lbs. of bones yield about 25 lbs. of gelatine. 
The gelatine is then dried and cut in the form of dice, 
and is used for making soup, for which it keeps better 
than the cakes of portable soup. This kind of prepared 
gelatine is made in England, and may be had in the Lon- 
don shops ; but we wish our readers to observe, that we 
merely mention the fact, without recommending the sub- 
stance. 

TO PICKLE SALMON. 

Salmon is pickled with vinegar in the following man- 
ner : The fish ought to be perfectly fresh and in good 



THE emigrant's HAiND-BOOK. 451 

condition, ft must be cut into pieces of convenient size, 
but the scales are not to be taken off. Make a strong 
brine, and boil the fish in just so much as will cover it, 
with some whole pepper and allspice, but take care not to 
over-boil. When sufficiently done, lay the fish on a slope 
to drain off the superfluous liquor. When quite cold, 
pack it up close in kitts, a kind of small shallow casks, 
and pour over them some of the brine, together with some 
good vinegar ; let this stand for a day ; and then, to make 
them lie close, strike the kitt with a mallet, and pack them 
down as close as possible ; then head the kitts. Some 
boil in the liquor bay-leaves, fennel, and tarragon. The 
kitts should not be opened till wanted for use ; the fish 
will keep after that a fortnight. The goodness of pickled 
salmon is known by the brightness of the scales, and their 
adhering fast to the skin, the firmness of the flesh, and its 
fine rose color. If stale, or beginning to spoil, it is ex- 
tremely unwholesome and altogether unfit for food. 

TO PICKLE OYSTERS. 

Put the oysters into a stew-pan with their liquor, over 
the fire ; do not let them boil, but take them off when they 
are white and firm ; remove the beards ; strain the liquor, 
and put it with twice its quantity of good vinegar into a 
stone jar ; to this may be added some mushroom catsup, 
some bay-leaves, tarragon, and shallots. Stew the whole 
in an oven for three hours ; when cold, put them into a 
jar, stewing in with them a little pounded sugar, some 
pepper-corns, allspice, and bay-leaves. Fill up the jar 
with vinegar, and cork and secure it with bladder. 

POTTED BEEF. 

Beef potted to taste like venison, is made of the flank of 
beef, the inside skin of which must be pulled off, and the 
meat slashed across, especially in the thickest parts. I* 



452 

must lie for six hours in pump water. It must then be 
salted with saltpetre, of the bulk of an egg, mixed with 
two pounds of common salt. White wine vinegar is to 
be sprinkled upon it, and it must lie for three days, turn- 
ing it once a day. The brine is then washed away with 
claret. The seasoning must consist of cloves, mace, nut- 
meg, white and red pepper ; a quarter of an ounce of 
each, beaten together with savory, thyme, sage, and the 
rind of lemon, shredded together, and then well-rubbed into 
the cuts, slashes, and insides. It must be afterward bound 
with tape, the claret poured over it, the skins laid upon it, 
and baked in a lone pot. 

TO PRESERVE BUTTER. 

Butter may be preserved without salt, by incorporating 
it with honey, in the proportion of an ounce to a pound of 
butter. This has an agreeable taste, will keep for years, 
and might be useful on long voyages ; but as the propor- 
tion of honey is considerable, it may not agree with some 
constitutions. 

TO PRESERVE EGGS 

However compact and close the shell of an egg may 
appear, it is nevertheless perforated with a multitude of 
small pores, too minute to be seen by the unassisted eye. 
The effect of these, however, is evident, by the daily de- 
crease of the moisture of the egg, through evaporation, 
and the air taking its place, which operates in effecting its 
alteration. From the time of its being laid, when the 
egg is quite full, a fluid is constantly perspiring through 
the perforations of the shell, which occasions its decay ; 
and this proceeds more rapidly in warm than in cold 
weather. Although an egg quite fresh is proverbially 
" full," yet in all stale eggs there is some vacancy, which 
is in proportion to the loss they have sustained through 



453 

evaporation. If the end of a fresh egg be applied to the 
tongue, it feels cold, but that of a stale egg feels warm, 
because the white of the former being in contact with the 
shell, abstracts the heat from the tongue more rapidly than 
the air bubble in the latter. 

To preserve eggs completely fresh, therefore, this trans- 
piration must be stopped, and the egg kept full. Any kind 
of varnish will answer this purpose, but the most conveni- 
ent substance is mutton suet, or a mixture of that and beef 
suet. This is rubbed over the eggs ; the most effectual 
method is to dip the eggs into this melted in a pipkin ; olive 
oil will also answer. They should be afterward wiped, 
to take off the superfluous fat or oil, which might become 
rancid, for all that is wanted is to stop up the pores. After 
this anointing, the eggs should be set on end with the small 
end uppermost, wedged close together, one layer over 
another in bran, the containing box being closely covered 
up. Laid upon the side, the yolk will adhere to the shell. 
They thus come into use, at the end of a considerable time, 
in a state almost equal to new laid eggs. They should 
be done over with the suet as soon as possible after they 
are laid. Some cover them with a solution of gum arable, 
which is preferable to fat. Eggs are sometimes packed 
in bran, meal of any kind, wood-ashes, salt, or charcoal 
powder ; but these substances are not nearly so effectual 
alone, as when the eggs are first done over with the above- 
mentioned substances, as they can have but a slight influ- 
ence in preventing the transpiration we have mentioned. 
Eggs should never be suffered to continue in the nest 
above a day, since the warmth which they receive in it 
from the hen is inimical to their keeping. It should be 
observed, that on the third day after the hen begins to sit on 
her eggs to hatch them, they are rendered unfit for use. 

It is said that the dealers in eggs immerse them for a 
moment in oil of vitriol, diluted with water, as a means 



454 THE farmer's and 

of preservation. This is not improbable, for the acid 
would dissolve a little of the calcareous matter of the shell, 
forming with it a sulphate of lime, which would be depo- 
sited and fill up the pores. 

Another mode of preserving eggs is to plunge them for 
five minutes in water heated to 140^ ; they are then taken 
out, oiled or rubbed with suet, and packed in sawdust or 
charcoal powder ; they will keep thus for a year or two. 
Some boil them for one minute, which preserves them a 
long time, probably by coagulating the portion of the al- 
bumen next to the shell. If boiled hard they will keep 
many weeks without other preparation. 

Eggs are very liable to absorb the flavor of any sub- 
stance they are kept in contact with, and therefore care 
should be taken not to pack them in anything that might 
communicate a flavor ; mahogany shavings will impart 
to them a peculiarly disagreeable taste; and musty straw 
will likewise give them an unpleasant flavor. 

PRESERVATION OF MILK. 

It is well known that it will not remain fresh for many 
hours in warm weather ; the principal care must there- 
fore be to keep it in as cool a place as possible ; stone 
shelves are preferable to wood ; and a room connected 
with an ice-house is particularly convenient. The milk- 
men of Paris, to prevent their milk from turning sour, 
sometimes use a little sub-carbonate of soda, which 
unites with the acid as it forms ; provided too much soda 
is not employed, this will have no injurious effect ; a little 
calcined magnesia will answer the same purpose. 

Milk boiled with sugar will keep some time. 

PRESERVING ROOTS, FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 

It had been long a desideratum to preserve fruits by 
some cheap method, yet such as would keep them fit for 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 455 

the various culinaiy purposes, as making tarts and other 
similar dishes. The expense of preserving them with 
sugar is a serious objection ; for except the sugar is in 
considerable quantity, the success is very uncertain. Sugar 
also overpowers and destroys the sub-acid taste so desira- 
ble in many fruits : those which are preserved in this 
manner are chiefly intended for the desert. 

In gathering fruit for winter store, great care should 
be taken not to bruise it, nor to break the skin ; the in- 
jured parts soon rot and spoil the sound fruit in contact 
with it. To prevent this, gardeners even have instruments 
for gathering the most valuable kinds of fruit from the 
trees, without touching it with the hand. Fruit intended 
to be stored, should never be beat off the trees, or by 
shaking the branches till it drops, if this can be avoided. 
They are best gathered on a fine day, when they are most 
likely to be dry; or if this be done on a wet day, they 
should be dried in the sun, if possible ; the more delicate 
kinds do not bear to be wiped, as this rubs off their bloom, 
which, when allowed to dry on some fruits, constitutes a 
natural varnish, closing up the pores, and preventing the 
evaporation of the juices. 

The usual mode with apples and pears has been, to lay 
them first in heaps for a fortnight or more, covered with 
mats or straw, to sweat, as it is called ; that is, by a very 
slight fermentation to discharge some of their juice, after 
which the skin contracts in a slight degree ; but this is 
now generally disapproved of, and it is thought best to 
carry them at once to the fruit-room, where they are laid 
upon shelves covered with white paper, after wiping 
gently each fruit. The fruit-room should be dry and 
well-aired, but should not admit the sun. The finer and 
larger kinds should not be allowed to touch each other, 
but should be kept separate ; for this purpose a number 
of shallow trays should be provided, supported above each 



456 THE FARMER'S AND 

Other on racks or stands. There should be the means of 
warming tlie room in very cold frosty weather. 

Some kinds of apples and pears are gathered before they 
are quite ripe, and the ripening is completed after they 
are gathered ; this is termed the maturation of the fruit, 
and it appears to be a curious and interesting natural pro. 
cess. This subject has been well exanined by M. Cou- 
verchel in a paper inserted in the "Annales de Chimie." 
He conceived that the acid and mucilaginous matters of 
fruit nearly ripe, are converted into sugar by a process 
which is perhaps chemical, and which has been called the 
saccharine fermentation. Had such fruit remained on 
the tree until it was quite ripe, this fermentation would 
soon have passed into the putrefactive stage, and then the 
fruit could not be preserved without extraordinary means, 
such as extreme cold, sugar, etc. 

In general, the apples and pears of autumn should be 
gathered eight days before they are ripe, and matured in 
this way. In fact, there are some fruits that are never 
fit for eating, except they are treated in this manner. The 
principle of life remains in vegetables very differently 
from what it does in animals ; for a branch cut from a 
tree does not die immediately, but will grow, on being 
planted, into a new tree. Flowers that have been cut off 
when only buds, blow on being placed in water ; and 
the head of a carrot, cut off a little below the top of the 
root, if placed in a shallow basin of water, will put out 
leaves, and become a handsome ornament. Mr. Knight 
is of opinion, that in the case of the maturation of fruit, it 
still continues to be in a living state, though taken from 
the tree, and that the saccharine matter is formed in the 
same manner as it would if growing. Pears kept for 
maturation may be packed carefully with dry moss, bran, 
or sand dried in an oven, in baskets lined with stout pa- 
per. Theywill keep in this way through the winter. 



I 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 457 

Choice apples and pears are sometimes wrapped singly 
in paper, and put into glazed jars, with covers. When, 
there is no fruit-room, a cool cellar may be used, or they 
may be kept in baskets packed in dry straw, and kept in 
a dry cool room. 

The free access of the atmosphere being one of the 
circumstances essential to the decomposition of animal 
and vegetable matter, it is obvious that the exclusion of it 
must prevent this effect from taking place, and that con» 
quently, if such substances are completely kept from the 
contact of air, they cannot change, or at least in a very 
inconsiderable degree. At a certain depth below the sur- 
face of the earth, the temperature does not vary, summer 
nor winter, and it is never so cold there as to freeze. This 
fact has been taken advantage of in the preservation of 
provisons. In many parts of Europe, vegetables, such as 
potatoes, turnips, carrots, onions, etc., are preserved for 
one or more years,' by burying them in deep pits in a 
clay soil, which they burn hard before using, or even in 
a dry sandy soil. Caves form excellent cellars, on ac- 
count of the equality of their temperature. 

To preserve green gooseberries, currants, or green peas, 
in this manner, let the fruit be gathered in dry weather, . 
or if not, let them be dried in the sun ; cut them from the 
stalks with scissors, and take care that they are not in the 
least wounded, and that no spoiled or bruised ones are 
mixed with the rest. Drop them gently into dry, wide- 
mouthed bottles. Cork the bottles and rosin over the corks. 
Make a trench in the garden at least two or three feet deep, 
and bury the bottles in it, placing the corks downward, 
to keep them from the frost. Should the frost in winter 
be severe, a quantity of litter from the stable should be 
laid over the place, where they have been put. If the 
bottles are placed in a very cool cellar, the fruit will 
keep tolerably well. By plunging the bottles after they 
20 



458 THE FARMER S AND 

are corked, for a few minutes in hot water, the berries will 
keep better. 

It is sometimes safer to take up certain vegetables be- 
fore hard frosts set in, where the cold is severe, as they 
may be preserved by artificial means, even by laying on 
a floor inaccessible to the frost ; whereas, if left in the 
ground, they would have been frozen and lost. This, in 
some situations, is the case with cabbages, lettuce, greens, 
endive, leeks, cauliflowers, etc. They should be care- 
fully removed in dry weather, without injuring the roots 
too much. Vegetables only a little touched by the frost, 
may be recovered by soaking in cold water. 

Potatoes are difficult to preserve for many years, and 
hence they are considered less to be depended upon than 
wheat against years of scarcity ; but as they are seldom 
required to be kept longer than during the winter and 
spring seasons, with proper preparations, this is not diffi- 
cult. 

When preserved in considerable quantities by the far- 
mers, several methods are put in 
practice in different districts ; but 
the principle appears to be merely 
to keep them dry, and so protected 
that the frost cannot reach them. 
A very effectual method was em- 
ployed by Mr. Young. He constructed a house capa- 
ble of holding seven hundred bushels of potatoes, and 
made it of fir posts, a, a, (see cut,) having the interstices 
filled in with watling ; against the sides of this he laid 
straw, and against that, exteriorly, he put earth rammed 
tight six feet thick at the bottom, and eighteen inches at 
the top. The roof was flat, and he placed on it a 
stack of beans. The beans kept out the weather, and 
yet admitted any steam that rose from the potatoes, and 
which if it did not escape, would have rotted them. A 




459 

roof of thatch would have answered. In some parts of 
the country, they are kept during the winter in pits in the 
ground, where the soil is dry and light, to the depth of 
three or four feet, lining this with straw, covering them with 
earth to protect them from the frost, and the whole thatch- 
ed. Roots, as potatoes, turnips, carrots, etc., should never 
be divested of the earth adhering to them when taken out 
of the ground, as it tends to preserve them fresh, the 
little fibres by which it is retained continuing still to 
draw some nutriment from it ; and if these are broken, 
the juices escape through the broken surfaces. They 
should be wounded as little as possible. 

Where the quantity is not considerable, potatoes may 
be kept in a cellar under ground, where the temperature is 
pretty equal and never very low, and covered with*straw or 
mats ; but in spring, they should be frequently examined 
and turned over ; those which are decayed should be re- 
moved,- and the shoots broken off closely, if any of them 
have sprouted. 

Carrots and turnips maybe preserved through the win- 
ter, by taking them up and keeping them in pits, or in a 
dry cellar in sand, secure from frost. The heads and 
roots should not be cut off. 

Onions, when pulled up, should be laid thinly on a 
gravel walk, and turned every day to dry. When thor- 
oughly dried, they are usually strung together by the 
tails, and hung up in a dry, well-aired place, till wanted 
for use. 

Cabbages are, in some places, preserved all winter by 
burying them in the ground, out of the reach of the 
frost. 

PRESERVING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES BY MEANS OF SYRUP. 

A great number of fruits may be preserved, in their 
natural, state, in a fluid transparent syrup of a proper 



460 THE FARMER S AND 

consistence, that penetrates into every part of the fruit. 
The method of effecting tliis requires considerable care ; 
for if the solution of sugar is too weak, in consequence of 
its tendency to ferment, it will quickly become sour if 
kept in a temperate degree of heat ; such a solution there- 
fore, is not calculated to prevent the natural fermentation 
of vegetable juices ; and if the syrup be too much concen- 
.trated, the sugar crystallizes, and thus spoils the fruit. 

Proper strength of syrup. — It has been ascertained, that 
a solution of sugar, prepared by dissolving two parts of 
doubled-refined sugar in one of water, and boiling this a 
little, affords a syrup of the right degree of strength, and 
which neither ferments nor crystallizes. This appears 
to be the degree called smooth by the confectioners, and 
is prope'r to be used for the purposes of preserving fruits. 

The syrup employed should sometimes be clarified, 
which is done in the following manner : Dissolve two 
pounds of loaf-sugar in a pint of water ; add to this solu- 
tion the white of an egg, and beat them well. Put the 
preserving pan upon the fire with the solution ; stir it 
with a wooden spatula, and when it begins to swell and 
boil up, throw in some cold water, or a little oil to damp 
the boiling ; for as it rises suddenly, if it should boil over, 
it would take fire, being of a very inflammable nature. 
Let it boil up again, then take it off, and remove carefully 
the scum that has risen. Boil the solution again, throw 
in a little more cold water ; remove the scum, and so on 
for three or four times successively ; then strain it. It is 
considered to be sufficiently boiled, when some taken up 
in a spoon pours out like oil ; and when a thin skin ap- 
pears on blowing upon the syrup, it is judged to be com- 
pletely saturated. The heat when sufficiently boiled, and 
of the proper strength, is 221®. In this manner the syrup 
will become quite transparent. It is scarcely necessary 
to say, that if a greater quantity of syrup is wanted, the 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 461 

proportions of sugar and water naust still be the same. 
Instead of loaf-sugar, some have used only brown sugar, 
which they have clarified to do as well as refined sugar, 
by mixing with the solution some pounded charcoal, which 
is boiled with the sugar : by straining repeatedly tnis 
black mixture, the charcoal is kept back, and the sugar 
becomes colorless. 

In the confectioner's art there is a great nicety in pro- 
portioning the degree of concentration of the syrup very 
exactly to each particular case ; and they know this by 
signs, and express it by certain technical terms. But to 
distinguish these properly, requires very great attention 
and considerable experience. 

The principal thing to be acquainted with is the fact, 
that in proportion as the syrup is longer boiled, its water 
will become evaporated, and its consistence will be thicker. 
Great care must be taken in the management of the fire, 
that the syrup does not boil over, and that the boiling is 
not carried to such an extent as to burn the sugar. 

We give the following degrees of boiling the syrup, as 
distinguished by the professed confectioner ; though, per- 
haps, such nicety is seldom attained in domestic practice. 
The first degree is called the thread, which is subdivided 
into the little and great thread. If you dip the finger into 
the syrup, and apply it to the thumb, the tenacity of the 
syrup will, on separating the finger and thumb, afford a 
thread which shortly breaks ; this is the Utile thread. If 
the thread, from the greater tenacity, and consequently, 
greater strength of the syrup, admits of a greater exten- 
sion of the finger and thumb, it is then called the great 
thread. 2nd. By longer boiling you obtain the ^earZ, which 
is denoted by the thread admitting of being drawn without 
breaking, by the utmost separation of the thumb and 
finger ; this makes candied sugar. 3rd. By further boil- 
ing, you obtain the Uow, which is known by dipping a 



\ 



462 THE farmer's and 

skimmer with holes into the syrup, and blowing through 
them ; if bubbles are perceived, what is termed the blow 
is obtained. 4th. The feather implies more numerous 
bubbles ; and then the sugar will fly off like flakes while 
the skimmer is quickly tossed. 5th. The hall admits, by 
additional boiling, the syrup to be rolled into a ball, pre- 
viously dipping the finger into water, then into the syrup, 
and subsequently into the water again. 6th. The crack 
denotes that it does not stick to the tooth, and cracks when 
broken. To know when it has attained this degree, dip 
a teaspoon or skewer into the sugar, and let it drop to 
the bottom of a pan of cold water ; if the sugar remain 
hard, it has attained the degree termed crack. 7th. The 
last degree is termed the carameZ, beyond which a partial 
burning, or rather carbonizing, of the syrup will take place. 
This is a very elegant covering for sweetmeats. We 
should observe, that ornamental confectionary can seldom 
be executed well but by the hands of professed confec- 
tioners. 

Pulpy fruits are preserved whole in syrup, as follows : 
The fruits that are the most fit for this mode are, apricots, 
■peaches, nectarines, apples, greengages, plums of all kinds, 
and pears. As an example, take some apricots not too 
ripe ; make a small slit at the stem end, and push out the 
stone ; simmer them in the water till they are softened, 
and about half done, and afterward throw them into cold 
water. When they have cooled, take them out, and drain 
theni. Put the apricots into the preserving pan, with suf- 
ficient syrup to cover them ; let them boil up three or 
four times, and then skim them ; remove them from the 
fire, pour them into an earthen pan, and let them cool till 
next day. Boil them up three days successively, skim- 
ming each time, and they will then be finished, and in a 
state fit \s:) be put into pots for use. After each boiling, it 
is proper to examine into the state of the syrup when cold ; 



HAND-BOOK. 463 

if too thin, it will bear additional boiling; if too thick, it 
may be lowered with more syrup of the usual standard. 
The reason why the fruit is emptied out of the preserving 
pan into an earthen pan, is, that the acid of the fruit acts 
upon the copper of which the preserving pans are usually 
made. From this example, the process of preserving 
fruits by syrup will be easily comprehended. The first 
object is, to soften the fruit, by blanching or boiling in 
water, in order tha^ the syrup, by which it is preserved, 
may penetrate through its substance. In proportion as 
the fruit is miripe or hard, it will require to be boiled 
three or four times in the syrup ; when it is of a softer 
texture, the syrup drained off and poured on the fruit in 
its boiling state, will be sufficient, as it is important to 
retain the shape and appearance of the fruit as perfect as 
possible. 

Fruits preserved hi/ syrup without heat. — Many fruits 
when preserved by boiling, lose much of their peculiar 
and delicate flavor, as for instance pine-apples ; and' this 
inconvenience may, in some instances, be remedied by 
preserving them without heat. Cut the fruit in slices, 
about one-fifth of an inch thick ; strew powdered loaf- 
sugar an eighth of an inch thick in the bottom of a jar, 
and put the slices on it. Put more sugar on this, and 
then another layer of the slices, and so on, till the jar 
is full. Place the jar with the fruit up to the neck in 
boiling water, and keep it there till the sugar is complete- 
ly dissolved, which may take half an hour, removing the 
scum as it rises. Lastly, tie a wet bladder over the mouth 
of the jar, or cork and wax it. 

Dry confects, or fruits preserved hy hoiling in syrup and 
drying afterward. — Any of the fruits that have been pre- 
served in syrup may be converted into dry preserves, by 
first draining them from the syrup, and them drying in a 
stove or very moderate oven ; adding to them a quantity 



464 THE farmer's and 

of powdered loaf-sugar, which will gradually penetrate 
the fruit, while the fluid parts of the syrup gently evapo- 
rate. They should be dried in a stove or oven, on a sieve, 
and turned every six or eight hours, fresh powdered sugar 
being sifted over them every time they are turned. Af- 
terward, they are to be kept in a dry situation in drawers 
or boxes. Currants and cherries preserved whole in this 
manner, in bunches, are extremely elegant, and have a 
fine flavor. In this way it is also that orange and lemon 
chips are preserved. 

Marmalades, jams, and fruit pastes. — The preserves 
which bear these names are of the same nature, and are 
now in very general request : they are prepared without 
difficulty, by attending to a few directions ; they are little 
expensive, and they may be kept without spoiling for a 
considerable time. 

Marmalades and jams differ a little from each other : 
they are preserves of a half liquid consistence, made by 
boiling the pulp of fruits, and sometimes part of the rinds, 
with sugar. The appellation of marmalade is applied to 
those confects which are composed of the firmer fruits, 
as pine-apples, or the rinds of oranges ; whereas jams are 
made of the more juicy berries, such as strawberries, 
raspberries, currants, mulberries, etc. Fruit pastes area 
kind of marmalades, consisting of the pulp of fruits first 
evaporated to a proper consistence, and afterward boiled 
with sugar. The mixture is then poured into a mould, 
or spread out on sheets of tin, and subsequently dried in 
the oven or stove, till it has acquired the state of a paste. 
From a sheet of this paste, strips may be cut and formed 
into any shape that may be desired ; as knots, rings, etc. 

In more juicy fruits, the pulp is boiled till much of 
the aqueous part is evaporated, before the sugar is added. 
This is best performed in broad shallow vessels ; but 
when the pulpy matter begins to get thick, great care is 



THL emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 465 

necessary to prevent its burning. This accident is al- 
most unavoidable if the quantity be large, and the fire 
applied, as is often the case, immediately under the pan : 
but it may be entirely avoided by putting the pulpy mass, 
when thickened to the consistence of a syrup, in shallow 
earthen pans, and placing them in an oven with its door 
open, moderately heated : in this manner the heat will be 
applied equally to every part. A still better plan, but 
more tedious, is to place the vessel containing the pulp in 
another vessel containing boiling water, which is called 
the water bath. The application of steam, by means of 
what is called the steam preserving pan, is the best con- 
trivance for making marmalades, jams, and all other culi- 
nary preparations which are liable to become injured by 
a degree of heat exceeding that of boiling water. 

Orange marmalade. — Scoop out the pulp of Seville 
oranges into a hair sieve, beat it, and press the juice 
through into a pan below ; boil the skins in water in the 
preserving pan, till they are tender ; then take out the 
white part, and cut them into small strips : add this to the 
juice, and to each pound of the fruit add a pound of clari- 
fied sugar, and boil the whole for about half an hour to the 
degree called the feather. Take it off, stir and mix it 
well, and boil again till it hangs to the spoon, being the 
degree called the crack. Take care not to boil it too 
much, but watch it carefully, as the proper consistence is 
important. When right, pour it into pots ; cover them 
with paper dipped in brandy, and tie a bladder over it. 
Common oranges are not equal to the Seville, but they 
will make very good marmalade. If the sugar is broken 
in pieces, and boiled with the fruit, without being first 
clarified, it will do ; but then it must be well skimmed as 
it boils. Marmalade should be made between February 
and the end of March, as the Seville oranges are then in 
their best state. 

20* 



466 THE farmer's and 

Scotch orange-chip marmalade, according to Meg Bods. — 
Take equal weight of fine loaf-sugar and Seville oranges ; 
wipe and grate the oranges, but not too much. (The outer 
grate, boiled up with sugar, will make an excellent 
conserve for rice, custard, or batter puddings.) Cut the 
oranges the cross way, and squeeze out the juice through 
a small sieve ; scrape off the pulp from the inner skins, 
and pick out the seeds ; boi-1 the skins perfectly tender, 
changing the water to take off part of the bitter. When 
cool, scrape the coarse, white, thready part from the skins, 
and trussing three or four skins together for dispatch, cut 
them into narrow chips ; clarify the sugar, and put the 
chips, pulp, and juice to it ; add, when boiled for ten 
minutes, the juice and grate of two lemons to every dozen 
of oranges. Skim and boil for twenty minutes ; pot, and 
cover when cold. 

Quince marmalade. — Boil some ripe quinces in a small 
quantity of water till they are tender ; pare the skins off, 
cut them into quarters, and take out the cores ; stew the 
parings and cores in some water ; strain this, and add the 
water to the quartered quinces. Put the whole into a pre- 
serving pan, with as much sugar as the weight of the 
quinces. Boil this till it is of the proper consistence for 
a marmalade, bruising it with a wooden spatula. 

A marmalade may be made in the same manner by 
using pears, apricots, peaches, pine-apples, or any other 
fruit of a pulpy nature. 

Jams require the same care and attention in the boiling 
as marmalade ; the slightest degree of burning communi- 
cates a disagreeable empyreumatic taste, and if they are 
not boiled sufficiently they will not keep. That they may 
keep, it is necessary not to be sparing of sugar. 

Raspberry jam. — Pick a sufficient quantity of fresh ripe 
raspberries, gathered on a dry day ; mash them, and pass 
them through a wicker sieve ; to one pint of the pulp add 



I 



THE emigrant's hand-book. 467 

a pound of loaf-sugar, pounded or broken small ; put the 
whole into a preserving pan over a clear fire. When it 
begins to boil, skim it well, and stir it for half an hour, 
taking great care not to let it burn. When done, put it 
into small pots, cut some pieces of paper round to the size 
of the pot ; dip them in brandy, and lay them on the jam : 
also tie another paper over the spot. Some add a little 
red currant juice to the raspberries ; but this will demand 
some more sugar : others add a little honey to make it 
richer. 

Strawberry jam and, larlerry jam are not made in the 
same manner. The sugar used may first be clarified : 
add one-sixth of currant juice. 

White gooseberry jam. — This is a homely preparation, 
but very useful where there are children. It is made as 
the last, only the gooseberries, which should be quite ripe, 
must be well boiled, until they begin to break. Each pound 
of fruit requires a pound of sugar ; and the gentle boiling 
must be continued till the the jam is of the right consist- 
ence. Red gooseberry jam is made in the same way. 

Currant jam may be made in the same way. 

The months when jams and jellies are usually made 
are June and July. They should be examined in 
August, to see if there be any tendency to fermentation, 
or any mouldiness ; if so, they must be rebelled and pre- 
pared over again. In warm seasons this is very liable to 
happen. 

To preserve damsons for pies. — Take equal weight of 
fruit and clarified sugar. If any of the damsons are 
broken, boil them first some time in sugar ; then add the 
whole quantity of fruit, and boil till it jellies : pot, and tie 
paper over. 

Fruit jellies. — These are compounds of the juices of 
fruits combined with sugar, concentrated by boiling to 
such a consistence that the liquid, upon cooling, assumes 



468 THE farmer's and 

the form of a tremulous jelly. Vegetable jelly i^ a dis- 
tinct principle existing in fruits, which possesses the prop- 
erty of gelatinizing when boiled and cooled : but it is a 
principle entirely different from the gelantine of animal 
bodies, although the name of jelly, common to both, some- 
times leads to an erroneous idea on that subject. Animal 
jelly, or gelantine, is glue ; whereas, vegetable jelly is 
rather analogous to gum, though different from it, and not 
nearly so nutritious as animal jelly or gelantine. In 
preparing vegetable jellies, it is necessary to guard against 
boiling them too long, since this destroys their property 
of gelatinizing, and they then assume the appearance of 
mucilage or gum ; and this accident is most likely to 
occur, when the quantity of sugar is too small to absorb 
the water of the juice. Jellies are most perfect, as to 
beauty and transparency, when clarified sugar is used : 
but for ordinary purposes, refined sugar answers very 
well. 

Currant jelly. — The usual method of obtaining the juice 
is to bruise the currants, and to pass them through a sieve ; 
but then it is apt to be turbid and thick. A better mode 
is to warm the fruit by steaming it, or by putting it closely 
covered into a slow oven ; the juice will then flow from 
it without much pressure. Put it now in the pre- 
serving pan on the fire to boil, in order to evaporate some 
of the water ; let it boil a quarter of an hour ; then take it 
off, skim it, and pass it through a flannel bag to render it 
clear ; add sugar to it in the proportion of a pound and a 
half of refined sugar to one pint of the juice, and put this 
on the fire to simmer very gently, until, by dipping a spoon 
in the jelly, and again raising it, the jelly becomes stiff: 
then the boiling is sufficient- Take it now off the fire, 
and let it stand till the scum has collected on the surface : 
remove this, run the whole through a hair sieve, and put the 
clear jelly into pots. When cold, cover the surface with 



THE EMIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 469 

jelly paper steeped in brandy. What remains on the sieve 
will do to make pies, or mix with any common jam ; and 
the jelly will be more delicate if no squeezing is employed. 
A small proportion of raspberries will improve the flavor. 
White currant jelly is made in a similar manner ; only 
the finest sugar should be used, and the boiling and strain- 
ing should be done very carefully, as the color is easily 
injured. White raspberry juice may be added. The 
sugar should be high-boiled. 

Black currant jelly is generally used medicinally ; it is 
made in the same manner. 

Grape jelly. — Spread some of the ripest grapes on straw ; 
at the end of a fortnight, pluck them from the stalks, 
and boil them for five or six minutes only, in order that 
the juice may be extracted with ease by pressure ; next 
pass the juice through a sieve, add a quarter of a pound 
of white sugar to each pound of juice, and boil the whole 
for half an hour, and afterward set it to cool; in twenty- 
four hours it will be a fine jelly, useful to invalids. 

CHOICE OF MEAT, FISH AND POULTRY. 

Beef. — The grain o^ ox leef, when good, is loose, the meat 
red, and the fat inclining to yellow. Cow heef, on the con- 
trary, has a closer grain, a whiter fat, but meat scarcely 
as red as that of ox beef. Inferior leef which is meat ob- 
tained from ill-fed animals, or from those which had become 
too old for food, may be known by a hard skinny fat, a 
dark red lean, and, in old animals, a line of a horny texture 
running through, the meat of the ribs. When meat press- 
ed by the finger rises up quickly, it may be considered as 
that of an animal which was in its prime ; when the dent 
made by pressure returns slowly, or remains visible, the 
animal had probably passed its prime, and the meat con- 
sequently must be of inferior quality. 



470 THE farmer's and 

Veal should be delicately white, though it is often juicy 
and well flavored when rather dark in color. Butchers, 
it is said, bleed calves purposely before killing them, with 
a view to make the flesh white ; but this also makes it dry 
and flavorless. On examining the loin, if the fat envelop- 
ing the kidney be white and firm-looking, the meat will 
probably be prime and recently killed. Veal will not 
keep as long as an older meat, especially in hot or damp 
weather ; when going, the fat becomes soft and moist, the 
meat flabby and spotted, and somewhat porous like sponge. 
Large overgrown veal is inferior to small, delicate, yet 
fat veal. The fillet of a cow calf is known by the udder 
attached to it, and by the softness of the skin ; it is prefer- 
able to the veal of a bull calf. 

Mutton. — The meat should be firm and close in grain, 
and red in color, the fat white and firm. Mutton is in its 
prime when the sheep is about five years old, though it is 
often killed much younger. If too young, the flesh feels 
tender when pinched ; if too old, on being" pinched it 
wrinkles up, and so remains. In young mutton, the fat 
readily separates ; in old, it is held together by strong 
strings of skin. 

In sheep diseased of the rot, the flesh is very pale-color- 
ed, the fat inclining to yellow, the meat appears loose from 
the bone, and if squeezed, drops of water ooze out from 
the grains ; after cooking, the meat drops clean away 
from the bones. 

Wether mutton is preferred to that of the eive ; it may 
be known by the lump of fat on the inside of the thigh. 

Lamb. — This meat will not keep long after it is killed. 
The large vein in the neck is bluish in color when the 
fore-quarter is fresh, green when becoming stale. In the 
hind-quarter, if not recently killed, the fat of the kidney 
will have a slight smell, and the knuckle will have lost its 
firmness. 



THE EMIGKANt's HilXD-BOOK . 471 

Pork. — When good, the rind is smooth, and cool to the 
touch ; when changing, from being too long killed, it be- 
comes flaccid and clammy. Enlarged glands, called 
kernels, in the fat, are marks of an ill-fed or diseased 

pig- 

Bacon should have a thin rind, and the fat should be 
firm and tinged red by the curing ; the flesh should be of 
a clear red, without intermixture of yellow, and it shoula 
firmly adhere to the bone. To judge of the state of a ham, 
plunf^e a knife into it to the bone ; on drawing it back, if 
particles of meat adhere to it, or if the smell is disagree- 
able, the curing has not been effectual, and the ham is not 
good ; it should, in such a state, be immediately cooked. 
In buying a ham, a short thick one is to be preferred to 
one long and thin. Of English hams, Yorkshire, West- 
moreland, and Hampshire are most esteemed : of foreign, 
the Westphalia. 

Venison. — When good, the fat is clear, bright, and of 
considerable thickness. To know when it is necessary to 
cook it, a knife must be plunged into the haunch ; and 
from the smell, the cook must determine on dressing or 
keeping it. 

In choosing poultry, the age of the bird is the chief 
point to be attended to. 

An old turkey has rough and reddish legs ; a young 
one smooth and black. Fresh killed, the eyes are full 
and clear, and the feet moist. When it has been kept 
too long, the parts about the vent begin to wear a greenish 
discolored appearance. 

Common domestic fowls , when young, have the legs and 
combs smooth ; when old, they are rough, and on the 
breast long hairs are found instead of feathers. Fowls 
and chickens should be plump on the breast, fat on the 
back, and white-legged. 

Geese. — The bills and feet are red when old ; yellow 



472 THE farmer's and 

when 'young. Fresh killed, the feet are pliable; stiff 
when too long kept. Geese are called green while they 
are only two or three months old. 

Ducks. — Choose them with supple feet, and hard plump 
breasts. Tame ducks have yellow feet, wild ones red. 

Pigeons are very indifferent food when they are too 
long kept. Suppleness of the feet show them to be young ; 
the state of the flesh is flaccid when they are getting bad 
from keeping. Tame pigeons are larger than the wild. 

Hares and rahhits, when old, have the haunches thick, 
the ears dry and tough, and the claws dry and rugged. 
A young hare has claws smooth and sharp, ears that easi- 
ly tear, and a narrow cleft in the lip. A leveret is dis- 
tinguished from a hare by a knob or small bone near tha 
foot. 

Partridges, when young, have yellow legs and dark- 
colored bills. Old partridges are very indifferent eat- 
ing. 

Woodcocks and snipes, when old, have the feet thick 
and hard ; when these are soft and tender, they are both 
young and fresh killed. When their bills become moist, 
and their throats muddy, they have been too long killed. 

Turhot, and all flat white fish, are rigid and firm when 
fresh ; the under side should be of a rich cream color. 
When out of season, or too long kept, this becomes a bluish 
white, and the flesh soft and flaccid. A clear bright eye 
in fish is also a mark of being fresli and good. 

Cod is known to be fresh by the rigidity of the muscles 
(or flesh,) the redness of the gills, and clearness of the 
eyes. Crimping much improves this fish. 

Salmon. — The flavor and excellence of this fish depends 
upon its freshness, and the shortness of the time since it 
was caught ; f:)r no method can completely preserve the 
delicate flavor it has. when just taken out of the water. 
A great deal of what is broun-ht to London has been packed 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 4^3 

in ice, and comes from the Scotch and Irish rivers, and 
though quite fresh, is not equal to the Thames salmon. 

Mackerel must be perfectly fresh, or it is a very indif- 
ferent fish; it will neither bear carriage, nor being kept 
many hours out of the water. The firmness of tne flesh, 
and the clearness of the eyes, must be the criterion of 
fresh mackerel, as they are of all other fish. 

Herrings can only be eaten when very fresh, and, like 
mackerel, will not remain good many hours after they 
are caught. 

Fresh-water fish. — The remarks as to firmness and 
clear fresh eyes, apply to this variety of fish, of which 
there are carp, tench, pike, perch, eels, etc. 

Lobsters, recently caught, have always some remains 
of muscular action in the claws, which may be excited 
by pressing the eyes with the finger ; when this cannot 
be produced, the lobster must have been too long kept. 
When boiled, the tail preserves its elasticity if fresh, but 
loses it as soon as it becomes stale. The heaviest lobsters 
are the best ; when light, they are watery and poor. 

Crab and crayfish must be chosen by observations simi- 
lar to those given above in the choice of lobsters. Crabs 
have an agreeable smell when fresh. 

Prawns and shrimps, when fresh, are firm and crisp. 

Oysters. ^-If fresh, the shell is firmly closed; when the 
shells of oysters are opened, they are dead, and unfit for 
food. The small shelled oysters, the Pyfleet, Colchester, 
and Milford are the finest in flavor. Larger kinds called 
rock oysters, are generally considered only fit for stewing 
and sauces, though some persons prefer them. 

PANADAS. 

Meat panada. — Take the meat of a chicken previously 
cooked, or the inside of a sirloin of beef or of a loin of 



474 

'mutton, whichever is recommended by the medical at 
tendant; mince it small, and pound it till it will pasa 
through a sieve, when mixed with broth or hot water, 
which will be according to the state of the patient, more 
or less rich and nourishing : unless ordered, no other sea- 
soning than a sprinkling of salt should be added. When 
the panada is prepared, it should be put into an earthen 
vessel, and placed in a cool situation. A little of it, 
taken out as it is wanted, should be warmed up in a little 
panakin. It must be stirred all the time it is on the fire, 
and served with delicate thin sippets of bread. 

Bread panada. — Grate a teacupful of bread, and mix 
with it some beef or mutton gravy, beating the bread with 
a spoon till perfectly smooth. Then boil it till it thickens, 
stirring it all the time it is boiling. 

Another recipe for bread panada. — Boil a glass of white 
wine and the same quantity of water together, adding a 
little sugar and lemon-peel to it, nutmeg if approved of; 
but spices are rarely desirable for invalids. Grate a cup 
of bread crumbs ; and when the wine and water boil, 
pour in the crumbs ; stir them together, and boil very 
quickly until the mixture thickens ; take it ofl' the fire and 
pour it into a basin. 

Bread panadas may be flavored with the juice of fruits, 
such as lemon and orange syrup, etc. Remember always 
that the ingredients must be boiled together, or they will 
not form into a jelly. 

PUDDINGS FOR INVALIDS. 

Light flour Pudding. — Take a spoonful of fine flour, 
boil a teacupful of milk and mix the flour very smoothly 
with it. Let it stand till cold, occasionally stirring it, to 
prevent the flour from settling at the bottom. When cold, 
add to it the yolk of an egg, well beaten, with a small 
iiiuantity of salt; tie it up very securely in a buttered 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOX. 4T5 

teacup or small puddino- basin ; plunge it into a saucepan 
of boiling water, and let it boil fast for half an hour. It 
should be just firm enough to stand when turned out of 
the basin. 

Bread Puddings. — ^Pour a cup of boiling milk on two 
table-spoonfuls of bread crumbs ; when cold add the yolk 
of a beaten egg to it, and boil in a basin for a quarter of 
an hour or twenty minutes. Cinnamon boiled in the 
milk, or a bruised bitter almond, together with lemon- 
peel, may be employed as flavoring ingredients. 

Arro2V-root Pudding is made by mixing a table-spoon- 
ful of it in cold milk, then pouring it into boiling milk. 
It must then be allowed to cool, when the yolk (well 
beaten) of an egg must be added, and the pudding must 
be put into a basin and boiled for ten minutes. All pud- 
dings for invalids, having eggs in them, should be boiled 
in preference to being baked. Baking is supposed to 
render eggs less easy of digestion than boiling. 

WEAVING. 

Woven cloth is alwayscornposedof two sets of threads, 
or, as the weavers call them, yam, crossing each other at 
right angles. One set extends the whole length of the 
web or piece of cloth, and is called the warp ; the other 
set runs from side to side of the web, or across the cloth, 
and is called the woof or weft ; the latter is not a succes- 
sion of different threads, but one continued thread through 
the whole piece of cloth ; it passes alternately under and 
over each thread of the warp, until it arrives at the out- 
side one, or edge of the web ; it then passes round the 
edge, and returns back over and under each warp thread 
as before, but so that it now goes under those threads 
which it went over before, thus firmly knitting together 
the woven tissue. The outside yarn of the warp, round 
which the weft doubles, is called the selvage (self-edge,) 



476 THE FARMER S ANB 

and cannot be unravelled without breaking the weft. 
This structure of cloth is easily seen, by examining a 

t piece of linen or calico with a magnifying 
grass, (see cut, a,) and may be observed on a 
large scale in matting, which is woven of coarse 
grass, or similar substances. 
Indeed, some kind of matting made of the fibrous parts 
of plants, as the stalk, such a? the rushes and straws, was 
probably the first kind of cloth invented by rude and un- 
civilized nations ; and the art of spinning threads from 
fine fibres was probably a refinement upon this, which 
led to the weaving of what we, at the pressent time, term 
cloth. Some nations are still ignorant of the art of weav- 
ing ; for the cloth made in Otaheite, where it was first 
discovered by Captain Cook, was made by merely ce- 
menting vegetable fibres together, and was very analo- 
gous to our paper ; and the Tartars make cloth by mere- 
ly felting wool. 

When the process of spinning threads from the delicate 
and short fibres which animals afford" was discovered, the 
weaver was furnished with a material superior to any 
fibres in their simple state, and the foundation was laid 
of the art of producing woven cloth. When, and by 
whom, that discovery was made is not known ; but it ap- 
pears to have happened early in the history of mankind. 
The cultivation of flax was practiced by the ancient 
Egyptians, and it is recorded that Pharaoh was arrayed 
in vestments of fine linen. The Hindoos have made cot- 
ton cloth from time immemorial, and the Hebrews were 
also in possession of the arts of weaving, dyeing, and em- 
broidery. 

Weaving was introduced into Britain by the Romans 
along with other arts of civilization ; but, from various 
causes, so little did our British ancestors profit by the ex- 
ample which had been thus set, that for several ages a 



I 



THE EBIIGRANT S HAND-BOOK. 



477 



great part of their wool was exported to the Low Coun- 
tries, where weaving had been successfully practiced, and 
brought back in the form of cloth. At so late a period 
as 1331, this art was so little understood in England, that 
the arrival of two weavers from Brabant is recorded in 
the chronicles, among the important events of that time. 
But it was the religious persecution under the Duke of 
Alva, and the revocation of the edict of Nants, that oc- 
casioned a great number of Flemish weavers to take re- 
fuge and settle in this country. 

Weaving is performed by the aid of a machine called 
a loom, and the simplest kind, or common looms, vary 
but little as to their general structure, whatever may be 
the nature of the fabric they are intended to make ; the 
chief difference in those for weaving silk or wool, consist- 
ing in the greater stability and strength of the latter, on 
account of the greater coarseness and elasticity of the 
fibres and the thickness of the cloth woven. Great im- 




478 THE farmer's and 

provements have been made of late in looms, particularly 
in weaving cottons, muslins, and silks ; nevertheless, the 
old-fashioned common loom is still employed, particularly 
in Spitalfields and other^places, for weaving plain silks. 
The first operation in weaving is to extend the warp 
yarn in parallel lines. This is effected by means of a 
contrivance called a warp-mill; and it is then rolled 
carefully round a thick roller in the loom, a, called the 
warp-beam, having a weight, c, suspended from it to keep 
the warp stretched. From this the warp, m m, forming 
the length of the piece, is stretched to another roller in 
the loom, called the cloth-beam, b, before the cloth is 
wound upon it when completed. Every thread of the 
warp between the two beams passes through loops in two 
sets of vertical threads, stretched in frames called hiddles, 
d d and e e, which are connected by strings at bottom with 
two treadles, d and e, to be pressed up and down by the 
weaver's feet. The use of these treadles is to separate 
the threads of the warp, by raising and depressing each 
thread alternately, and thus making way for the weft to 
pass through ; the two treadles being so united by a rope 
and pulley, that the depression of one must cause the rais- 
ing of the other. The weft is driven from one side to the 
other through this space, called the shed, by means of a 
shuttle thrown from the hand. The shuttle is a small 



box pointed at both ends, and contains a small bobbin of 
cane, called the quill, having the weft wound on, and 
which runs on as the shuttle is thrown. No sooner is a 
thread of weft thrown by the motion of the shuttle, than it 
is driven up close to the last thread of weft by the blow 
of a comb-like apparatus, called a batten, l, which con- 



i 



THE emigrant's HAND-BOOK. 479 

sists of a long narrow frame, with a number of slit pieces 
of reed, cane, or wires, arranged perpendicularly, and 
so close that every thread of the weft passes through two 
of them : this batten is suspended in a horizontal position 
by two vertical laths, which are movable, like a pendu- 
lum, from a centre position at the top of the loom, f. The 
weaver placed on the seat, n, lays hold of this batten, 
and by pulling it toward him forcibly, he strikes the last 
thrown thread of weft up to the cloth that is forming. 
When a certain number of threads of the weft are thus 
thrown by the shuttle, and brought up close by the batten 
and reed, so much cloth is made, and the cloth-beam is turn- 
ed round to wind it up ; this beam is prevented from going 
back by a ratchet wheel and click fixed on the end. Thus 
the operation in working the loom for weaving plain cloth, 
consists of three simple movements : First. Opening tne 
thread, or separating the threads of the warp alternately 
to admit the shuttle, which is effected by pressing the 
treadles that move the heddles. Second. Throwing the 
shuttle by hand to form the weft. Third. Pulling the 
batten and reed to strike home the weft, and again push- 
ing it back to the heddles. 

The fineness, or rather the closeness of texture in 
cloth, depends upon the number of laths or dents which 
the reed contains within a given space, and which, of 
course, determine the number of threads of warp in the 
same space. The yarn of the weft is always somewhat 
finer than that of the warp, and the number of shoots of 
it in a given space must consequently always exceed the 
number of threads of warp in a similar space ; that is to 
say, a square inch of cloth must contain a greater number 
of threads of weft than of warp. 

The perfection of weaving depends very much upon 
stretching the warp exactly parallel, and likewise on roll- 
ing them with great regularity upon the yarn-beam. It 



480 THE FARMEP S AND 

is necessary, also, that the weaver should exert the same 
force in every stroke of the reed frame, in order to make 
every part of the cloth equally compact. 

Previous to warping, the yarn must be prepared by 
sizing and starching, called dressing, in order to cement 
all the loose fibres, and thus render it smooth, firm, and 
strong ; and the weaver suspends his operation, from 
time to time, in order to apply the dressing to his warp. 
The weft of muslins and thin cotton goods is generally 
woven into the cloth in a wet state, by which the fibres 
of the cotton are rendered smooth and parallel, the effect 
of which is similar to dressing the warp. The operations 
of hand-loom weaving are simple and soon learned, but 
it requires much practice to perform these with dexterity. 



THE END. 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Abortion, or slinking the calf 177 

Accidents 268 

Act to grant preemption rights 352 

Adhesive plaster 2(54 

Admeasurement of cattle, table for. . 406 
Adoption of the Federal Constitu- 
tion 343 

Adults, diarhoea in 240 

Anidavits required of preemption 

claimants 355 

Aged persons, cure for cough iii 259 

Age of neat cattle, how to know the 200 

Ague and Fever 234 

Aloetic pills 257 

co!n[)ound 257 

America, discovery of 341 

Amount of Indian corn sugar from 

the acre 371 

Animal food, nutritive matter in... . 408 

Animals, fattening 391-409 

raising domestic 43 

selection of breed 44 

feeding of 44 

humanity to 45 

An internal remedy for hydrophobi:i 404 

Anti bilious medicine 262 

Application of leeches 251 

Apricot, tlie 296 

Arm, fractures of the 279 

Arrowroot pudding 475 

Articles necessary for a new settler, 

and their prices... 16 

Auger with cutters 90 

Average price of clearing land 17 



FAOS 

Beef, curing for the English market. 328 

potted 451 

cutting up 414 

choice of. 469 

Belly, wounds of the 278 

165 

165 

26i 

42 



Beer, spruce, 
minute, 
root — 



242 

trees 290 

128 

128 



Bilious fever 

colic. .... 
Birds among frui 
Biscuit, family... 

quick 

Biscuits, butter 142 

Bite of a mad dog, remedy for 4015 

Bites of mad dogs, rattlesnakes, &c. 270 

Black dye 167 

foot 177 

tongue 225 

gum in plum trees 297 

salts, how to make 359 

Blain 179 

Blanc mange, good common 145 

richer 146 

Blast, or blown ? 208 

Bleeding cattle 173 

at the nose 237 

piles 248 

to stop 271 

directions for 281 

Blind staggers in hogs 218 

piles 2-18 

Blown, hoove or hoven 189 

or blast 208 

Blood, in sheep 205 

Bluedye 168 

grass on bank fence 100 

grass 397 

Boiling cornstalks for sugar 310 

Boiler for cornstalks 367 

Borer in quince trees 305 

Boring posts, machine for ••• . 89 

Bots in horses 223 

Parns 101 j Bowels, inflammation of. 241 

Ba rk of the pine, bread from 444 in cattle .... 189 

Beans and pork 149| Brain, concussion of the 270 

Baef tea 267' Bread, hov.- to make. 

•21 



B 



Back and front view of shanty 52 

Bacon, choice of. 471 

Baking 127 

Balm 438 

Bars and gates 35 

Barns, economy of feeding in 45 



133 



4821 



XDEX. 



PAGE. 

Bread made of wood 128 

improved corn 1:57 

made from mixtures of various 

grain 410 

from the bark of the pine 444 

panada 474 

puddin;? 475 

Breaking up land 28 

and grinding madder 328 

prairie 399 

Breeding swine, care of 219 

Breed of swine 220 

Breeds of animals, selecting 44 

Brick houses, unburnt 72 

Brickbat cheese 429 

British oil 393 

British money in Canada 396 

Broomcorn 377 

method of planting 377 

cultivation of 378 

harvesting 378 

scraping. 378 

machine for scraping. . . 379 

})roduct of 380 

value of a crop of. 380 

quantity of 380 

Brooms, manufacture of 380 

Brush and log heaps 18 

Buckwheat cakes 137 

Building a house 20 

stables 29 

a pise house 77 

mud walls, mode of 85 

Burgundy pitch, plaster, compound. 203 

compression of the 271 

Burning stumps 21 

Burns and scalds 252 

extensive 2.5.3 

remedies for 281 

Business forms at land offices 335 

Butter making in Orange County. . . 107 

working and salting 108 

Vermont 109 

making, statement by Jacob 

T. Lansing 110 

making, statement by William 

Weovifield 112 

making, statement by Charles 

Lyon 112 

biscuits 140 

cake J 44 

to preserve 452 

Buying too much land 14 

c 

Cabbages, to preserve I^tl 

Cakesj remarks on ]39 

Imckwhe.it... 140 

very gfiod small rich Iri;h. • 140 

tine alnionsl ■■ • II'' 



PASK 

Cake, cup 143 

sponge 144 

batter 145 

liound 147 

rich wedding 148 

Washington 162 

Calf's feet blahc mange 145 

Calf, abortion, or slioking of the 177 

Cahing 180 

Calves, weaning and rearing 181 

fheir diseases 184 

costiveness. in 185 

canker in 180 

to prevent them from sucking 186 

scours in 180 

cold in 187 

cr.tarrh in 187 

cough in 187 

Camomile 438 

Cainphorated soap liniment 393 

Canada, British money in 39i) 

West, cost of clearing ten 

acres in 21 

Candles, cheap 153 

Canker in calves 180 

Caraway 437 

Care of milk before churning 108 

of breeding swine 210 

in the planting of trees 29-1 

Carpets, shaking .39(3 

Carrots ' 42 

Castile Soap, to make Windsor and. 1G9 

I Casting, rough 420 

I Castor oil clyster 257 

Catarrh in calves 187 

Cattle choking 187 

Cattle, lice on 190 

red water in 192 

cow ])ox in 188 

hoove, hoven, or blown, in. . ]?8 
inflammation of the bowels in 189 

mad ilcli in 191 

the manse in.... 191 

red ivate^r in 192 

scooring-rot, or rot 194 

staggers in 195 

trembles in 195 

yellows in 197 

horn ail in 198 

murrain in 200 

how to ascertain the nge of. 200 

physicking '202 

]mlse of : 204 

how to measure 405 

table for admeasurement of. 406 
slieep, horses, swine, &c., dis- 
eases of. 171 

Catsu]), tomato 159 

Caution in purchasing Land " 9 

Cements 419 

.Charcoal poultice 253 

I rhea p farm-house 61 



484 



INDEX, 



PAGE. 

CornsUlk sugar boiler 307 

mill 3C8 

straining 369 

boilinjr 370 

crystallization 371 

amount from the 

acre 371 

expense of making. 372 
remarks concerning 373 

to make 375 

Costiveness in calves 185 

Cost of a prairie farm 402 

of clearing ten acres in Canada 

West 21 

of farming utensils 24 

of a well 32 

of fencing, estimate of 88 

Cottage, plan for a farm 56 

perspective view of. 57 

ground plan of 58 

plan of second floor of. .. . 59 

Cottages, whitewashing 100 

Cottenham cheese 428 

Cough in calves 187 

mixture, Dr. Ratclifte's 258 

medicine, Dr. Munro's 258 

simple remedy for 259 

chronic, remedy for 2.59 

in aged persons 259 

Counsel, keep your own 29 

Cows, milking 105 

treating them with gentleness 105 

Cow Pox 188 

Crabs and cray fish, choice of. 473 

Cramp in the stomach 244 

Cream cheese 434 

Credit, custom of Landholders in re- 
gard to 15 

Crops, Cultivation of 39 

preservation of 45 

Crop of broomcorn, value of 380 

of madder, statement of. 316 

Croup 243 

Crullers - 142 

Crust, flead 133 

superior suet . .^ 134 

Crystallization of cornSlalk sugar. . 371 

Cubic measures, table of 388 

Cucumbers, to pickle 151 

Cultivation of crops 39 

of madder 315 

of broomcorn 378 

Curciilio, the 298 

Cure of colic in horses 222 

for sprains in horses 225 

Cures for hydrophobia 403 

Curing haras, a cheap manner ■ .. • 162 

Virginia mode 163 

Curing provisions for English market 323 
sheep skins with wool on . • 390 

Westphalia hams 413 

Currant jelly 468 



Custard , 146 

' Custom of Landholders in regard to 

credit 15 

Cutting hay 29 

glass 426 

up meat 413 



beef. 

mutton. 

Iamb... 

veal 

pork... 



Dairy 

utensils 

Damsons for pies, preserving 

Debility in females, tonic for 

Decoction of sarsaparilla 

the woods 

Deepening soil by ploughing 

Description of a cheap farm-house. . 
Design for a farm-house and out- 
buildings 

Destruction of weeds 

Diarrhoea in calves 

in adults 

Difference in milkers 

Different grains, quintity of meal in 

Digging and harvesting madder 

Directions for clearing land 

the first year 

fulled cl6th 

bleeding 

Discovery of America 

Diseased peach trees, to restore 

Diseases of cattle 

calves 

sheep 

swine 

horses 

Distemper, painting in 

Ditch, post and embankment 

Ditches 

Ditching and fencing, mode of 

Docking horses 

Domestic economy, items of. 

animals, raising 

Double Gloucester cheese 

Dough for bread, making the 

Dough-nuts 

Dover's powder 

Draining and manuring 

Draining, experiment in 

Dropsy in sheep 

Dry wood, heat from 

Drying madder... 

Ducks, choice of 

Dunlop cheese 

Dutch cheese 

Dye, black 

green 



414 
417 
418 
419 
419 



105 
108 
467 
261' 
265 



390 

184 

240 

105 

407 

319 

17 

25 

166 

281 

341 

311 

171 

184 

205 

216 

222 

422 

90 

36 

85 

228 

394 

43 

427 

126 

143 

263 

.35 

37 

207 

394 

319 

472 

432 

432 

167 



,} DEX. 



483 



PAGE 

Cheap farm-house, description of. . . 62 

wood mill 91 

rail fence 93 

candles 153 

manner to cure hams 16-2 

paint 331 

Chedder cheese 429 

Chemical tests tor examining water. 443 

Cherry trees, nuisance around 295 

Cheshire cheese 427 

Cheese, reports on 114 

statement of H. P. & G. Al- 
len 114 

statement of Daniel Marvin 115 
Phineas Hardy 116 

making 110 

the emigrant's. 117 

new method of making. . . . 117 

to make sage 118 

varieties of 427 

Cheshire 427 

Gloucester 427 

Double Gloucester 427 

Stilton 428 

Cottenham 428 

sage 428 

chedder 429 

brickbat 429 

Dunlop 429 

new 430 

skim-milk 430 

Parmesan 431 

Dutch 432 

Swiss 432 

Grayene 432 

Schabziegar 433 

Westphalia 433 

cream 434 

Chest, wounds of the 277 

Chimney, clay 27 

China, mending 425 

Choice of beef 4G9 

veal 470 

mutton 470 

lamb 470 

pork 471 

bacon 471 

venison 471 

domestic fowls 471 

geese 471 

ducks 472 

pigeons 472 

hares and rabbits 472 

partridges 472 

v\oodcocks and snipes. .. . 472 

turbot 472 

cod 472 

salmon 472 

mackerel 473 

herring , 473 

fresh-water ri:;h ^73 

lobsters •1V:j 



PAGE. 

Choice of crabs and crayfish 473 

prawns and shrimps 473 

oysters 473 

Choking cattle 187 

Cholagogue, Indian 233 

Chronic rheumatism 245 

cough, remedy for 259 

Churclies, convenience to 11 

Churning machine 108 

care of milk before 108 

Claimants, preemption 355 

Clarifying cornstalk sugar 369 

Clay chimney 27 

Cleaning the ground for hops 337 

Clearing land, average price of. .. . 17 

land, directions for 17 

ten acres in Canada West, 

cost of 21 

Cloth, directions for fulled 166 

Clyster, castor oil 257 

Cod, choice of. 473 

Codlish salted 156 

Cooking string beans 161 

green peas IGl 

Cold in calves 187 

and sedative poultice 250 

Colic 242 

in horses, cure of 222 

Colocynth pills, compound 256 

Coloring, madder red 169 

for walls 421 

Collar-hone, fractures of the 279 

Common paste for pies 130 

ginsrerbread 138 

headach 237 

j)oultice 262 

Compound aloetic pills 257 

colocynth pills 256 

soap liniment 263 

burgundy pitch j)Iaster. . 263 

Composition, preservative 382 

Com|)ression of the brain 271 

Concussion of the brain 270 

Congress 347 

Constitution of the United States, 

glance at tiie 339 

Constitution, ^option of the 343 

powers granted in the. 345 

Contused wounds 275 

Contusions 269 

Conveniences to churches, schools, 

&c 11 

Cordial, Godfrey's 2fi4 

Coriander 437 

Corn, Indian 41 

cake 129 

breiid, improved 140 

green, for use in winter 160 

meal..., 166 

measuring 38vl 

Coriiiaalk sugar 365 

clar.f, in:: 3u!) 



I 



INDEX. 



485 



Dye, blue 

slate color 

Dyers' madder, cultivation of., 



PARE.] PAO«. 

. . 108 Fencing the prairies 94 

.. JOOlFevers 233 



315 



Ear, wounds of 27 . 

Economy of feeding in barns 45 

Economy, domestic 394 

Eggs, to preserve 4^^) 

an article of export 385 

Elevation of farm-house 67 

farmery 70 

Elm bark roof 55 

Embankment, post and ditch 90 

Embrocation for sjirains 251 

Emigrant cheese 117 

End view of iron mill.... 90 

English market, curing provisions for .323 

Errors in the treatment of horse" 227 

Estimate of the cost of fencing 88 

Europe, freight to. . ^ 384 

Examining water 443 

Expense of making corn sugar 372 

Experiment in draining 37 

Export, eggs an article of. 385 

Eye waters 256 



fever and 



Family biscuit 128 

Farm, cost of a prairie 402 

buildings 49 

Farmer, value of swine to the 383 

Farmery, elevation of 70 

plan of 71 

Farming on prairies 23 

utensils, cost of. 24 

Farm-house, a cheap 61 

perspective view of a 

prairie 93 

description of a qheap. 62 
ground plan of a prairie 64 

design for a 66 

elevation of 67 

ground plan of a 68 

second floor of 68 

Fattening animals 391-409 

Federal Constitution, adoption of. . . 343 

Feeding animals 44 

in barns, economy of. 45 

sheep, regularity in 214 

Females, tonic for debility in 261 

Fence (plate) 90 

Fence, rail 98 

blue grass on bank 100 

Fences, timber for 34 

Fences 49 

Fencing land 20 

Fencing and ditching, mode of. ... . 86 

estimate of the cost of 88 

improved mode of 96 



rever, intermittent, 

ague 234 

Fever, simple 2.35 

bilious 236 

scarlet 237 

Fields, shape and size of 34 

Figs, tomato 158 

First year, directions for 25 

Flies, to preserve hams from 164 

Film in the eye of a beast 226 

Filtering water 439 

Fish, to preserve 445 

Flour pudding 474 

Flour, to test rhe purity of 124 

Fomentation of rnarsh mallows 249 

poppies 246 

Foreign bodies in the throat 280 

coins, value in United Slates 394 

Forest life, romance of. 19 

Forms for business at land offices. . . 355 

Founder in horses 224 

Fractures 278 

of the collar bone 279 

arm. 279 

ribs 280 

Frame cottage, plan for a 56 

Freight to Europe 384 

Fresh water fish, choice of. 473 

Fried tomato 160 

Front and back view of shanty 52 

view of iron mill 92 

Fruit pies 133 

jellies 467 

pastes 464 

garden 285 

garden, situation of 286 

garden, swine and poultry in. . 289 

stealing 286 

trees, order of planting 287 

trees, prices of 285 

trees, birds among 290 

trees, situated 290 

trees, pruning 293 

trees, mice girdling 294 

trees, slugs among 295 

keeping winter 306 

preserving 454 

preserved ly syrup without 

heat 463 

Fuel 412 

Fulled cloth, directions for 166 



Ganget, or downfall of the udder. . . 188 

Gargle for sore throat 259 

Gates and bars.*. 35 

ise, choice of. 471 

Gelatine brut fin 450 

Gingerbread, common 141 



486 



PACK. 

Ginp^er, tinoture of. 2ti4 

Girdling trees 2(i 

Glance ul.tlie Coiisiilnlion oCllie Uni- 
ted States 33!) 

Glass, culling 4-J(> 

Gloucester clieese 427 

Grains, bread made from a mixture 

of. 410 

Grape jelly 4011 

Grass seeds, seeding land with 42 

blue, on bank fence 100 

Grease spots, to remove 3i)4 

Green corn for winter use 100 

peas, how to cook 1 (i 1 

dye 108 

Grinding madder 321 

Ground, clearing for ho|)s 337 

plan for a collage 58 

of a prairie farm-bouse (54 

of a firm-liouse 08 

Growing timber on the prairie 307 

Gruyere cheese 432 

H 

Hams, to cure Westphalia 413 

Ut keep in summer 157 

to cure in a cheap manner. . . 102 

Virginia mode of curing 103 

to preserve from flies 104 

Hard yeast 125 

water made soft 1.54 

Hares and rabbits, ciioice of 472 

Harvesting madder 319 

broomcorn 378 

Hay, cutting 20 

Headaciie, common 237 

Healing salve 202 

Health fulness of location 10 

Heating the oven 127 

Heat from green and dry wood 394 

Heifers, taming 100 

Hen houses 1 00 

Herrings, choice of. 473 

Holes bored 90 

Homminy, to make 157 

Hoose in calves 185 

Hop yeast 124 

Hops. 335 

soil for i 335 

soil for manuring 335 

the kind of. 330 

planting 330 

poling 337 

clearing the ground for 3:i7 

Tforn ail 198 

Horses, diseases of. 222 

cure for colic in 222 

bots in - 223 

founder in 224 

yellow water in 224 

•wellingsin 224 



PACIS. 

Horses, stide in 225 

cure for spasms in 225 

swiney in 225 

ring-bone in 225 

black tongue in 225 

film in tiie eves of 225 

pole evil in. '. 226 

scratches in 227 

errors in the treatment of. .. 227 

docking 228 

purging 229 

House, situation of to plough land. . 302 

building a 20 

cost of a 27 

log 54 

cheap farm 01 

description of a cheaj) farm.. (52 
])ers))ective view of a i)rairie 

farm 6.3 

ground plan of a prairie farm 64 

design for a farm 66 

elevation of a farm 07 

ground plan of a farm 08 

second floor of a farm 68 

building a pis6 77 

Houses, pise, or unburnt brick 72 

lien 100 

ice ■ 101 

Ifoven, hoove, or blown 189 

How to ascertain the age of neat cat- 
lie 200 

to judge of the quality of wild 

lands 12 

to make bread 123 

Humanity to animals 45 

Hydrophobia and its remedies 403 

internal remedy for. . . 404 

I 

Ice-houses 191 

Feeing for cakes 137 

Illinois wheat, for Liverpool 386 

Importance of manures 39 

milking quickly 106 

Improved mode of fencing 96 

corn bread 137 

Incised wounds 273 

Incombustible wash .383 

Independence of the States 343 

Indian corn and potatoes 41 

corn meal 129 

chalogogue ,. 235 

corn sugar 305 

Inflammatory rheumatism ... 245 

sore throat, gargle fcr 260 
Inflammation, to diminish inordinate 248 

of the brain 236 

bowels 241 

Intermittent Fever 234 

Internal remedy for hydrophobia. . . 404 
Irreducible ruptures 2^17 



INDEX. 



487 



PAGE. 

Iron mill, end view of S)'2 

front view of 92 

Isinglass bl-inc niiinge 14.") 

jelly '267 

Itch 244 

J 

Jam, raspberry 405 

strawberry 4(>7 

barberry 467 

white gooseberry 4()7 

Jams 4(54 

Jaundice 242 

Jellies, fruit 467 

grape 469 

currant 468 

K 

Keep your own counsel 30 

Kidney, worms in Swine's 217 

L 

Labor-saving soap 155 

Lamb, cutting up 418 

choice of. 470 

Land, how to judge of the quality. . 12 

quality of prairie 13 

buying too much ". 14 

caution in purchasing 9 

average price of clearing 17 

directions for clearing. 17 

fencing the 20 

breaking up 28 

proportion of wood 33 

seeding with grass seeds 42 

directions for seeding 43 

public 348 

offices, forms for business ati . 355 
Landholders, custom in relation to 

credit 15 

Lard oil 330 

Leeches, application of 251 

Legal value of Foreign coins 394 

Lice on cattle ... 190 

Light flour puddin?.. 474 

Lime spots on clothes .394 

Liniment, compound soap 2o3 

CJimphorated soap 393 

Linseed poultice 2.50 

Liverpool, Illinois wheat sent to:.. 3J^G 

Loaf cake, plain 137 

Lobster, choice of. 473 

Log house .W 

shanty 17 

and brush heaps 18 

shanty 51 

front and back view of. . .52 

Lotion, refrigerant 249 

sedative 250 



PAGE. 

Lotion for scorbutic ulcers 245 

manufacture of. 330 

M 

Machine for boring posts 89 

scra[)ing broomcorn.. . 379 

churning 108 

Jfackerel, choice of « 473 

Madder, cultivation of 315 

statement of a crop of.... 316 

soil and preparation for 317 

preparing lots and planting 317 

afterculture of 318 

the second year 319 

third year 310 

digging and harvesting 319 

washing and drying 319 

kiln drying 320 

breaking and drying 321 

product of 321 

red, to color 169 

Mad dog, cure for the bite of a 403 

itch 191 

Malt poultice 255 

Management of a farm 33 

of orchards 310 

Mange 191 

Mangers for sheep 213 

Manufacture of lard oil 330 

brooms 380 

Manures, importance of 39 

Manuring and draining 35 

hops 335 

Maple sugar, to make 359 

IMarjoram 436 

INIarket, proximity to 11 

Marmalades 464 

Marmalade, quince 466 

orange 465 

Scotch orange chip, .... 466 

Meal in differeKt grains 407 

Measles 2.33 

in swine 217 

Measure cakes 138 

Measures and weights 123-233 

table of cubic 388 

Measuring corn 389 

cattle 405 

Meat, cutting up 41 

to i)reserve 446 

panadas 47.3 

^Medical doses, scale of 233 

Mending china 425 

^lethod of planting broomcorn 377 

Mice girdling trees 294 

Mildew, white 303 

Milkers, difference in 105 

Milking cows 105 

importance of expertness in 106 

Milk paint , 434 

care of before churning lOS 



488 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Milk, preservation of 454 

room 107 

Mill, cheap wood 91 

for corn sugar 3()8 

Mince pies 135 

Mint 435 

Minute beer 165 

Jlixing soils 41 

Mixtures of various grains 410 

Mode of building mud-walls 85 

fencing and ditching Sfi 

fencing improved 96 

Molasses, to improve 163 

Money, value of Foreign 394 

in Canada 396 

Moss on tress 311 

Mud walls, mode of building 85 

Muffins , 143 

Mumps 240 

Murrain 200 

Mutton, cutting up 417 

choice of 470 

N 

Napoleon's pectoral pills 258 

Naturalization and preemption laws 350 

Neat cattle, to know the age of 200 

Nervous pills 262 

New method of making cheese 117 

Nipples, sore 261 

Nuisances around cherry trees 295 

Nutritive matter in vegetable food.. 409 
animal food 408 

O 

Oats 42 

Officers of the United States 347 

Oil, British 393 

of spike 393 

Ointment for rheumatism 260 

simple 263 

Onions, pickling 150 

Opodeldoc 39'^ 

Orange County butter 107 

marmalade 465 

Out-buildings, design for 66 

Oven, heating the 127 

Oysters, pickling 451 

choice of. 473 

P 

Paint, cheap 381 

milk 424 

Painting in distemper 422 

Panada 267 

meat 473 

bread 474 

Parasitic plants ^ 294 

Parmegan cheeae 431 



PASS. 

Parties, political 349 

Partridges, choice of. 472 

Paste for pies 1.10 

good light, pufF, cream 131 13^ 

Pastry icing for HO 

Peaches 308 

elevated soil for 304 

Peach trees, yellows in 302 

restoring diseased 311 

worm in 300 

Pear trees, fire-blight in. 296 

Peas 42 

how to cook green 161 

Pectoral pills. Napoleon's 2.58 

Pennyroyal mint 4.36 

Peppermint 435 

Peppers, pickling 15y 

Perspective view of a cottage 57 

of a prairie farm- 
house 63 

Physicking cattle 175-202 

Pickles, tomato 160 

Pickling _ 150 

onions 150 

peppers 151 

cabbage 151 

cucumbers 151 

salmon 4r)0 

oysters 451 

Pies, to preserve damsons for 467 

suet, crust for 133 

chicken, pudding, fruit-... 134 135 

mince 13G 

pumpkin 138 

Pigeons, choice of. 472 

Piles, blind 24S 

bleeding 248 

Pill, nervous 262 

aloetic 2.57 

compound aloetic 257 

colocynth 25G 

for rheumatism 260 

Pine, bread from the bark of 444 

Pis6 unburnt brick houses 72 

making 74 

house, building a 77 

houses 80 

Plain loaf cake 137 

Plan for a farm cottage 56 

of a second floor of cottage... . 59 

of farmery, house, grounds, &c. 71 

Planting trees, order of 287 

care in 291 

hops 337 

madder 317 

Plants, parasitic 294 

Plaster, adhesive 264 

compound burgundy pitch. . 263 

strengthening 262 

Pleurisy ■. 241 

Ploughing, deepening soil by 41 

Plough, views of 90 



INDEX. 



489 



Plum trees, blac^ gum ir.. 

Poisoned wounds 

Polin;! hops 

Political parties 

Poll evil 



PARK. 

.". 297- 

. . 27fi 

.. 337 

.. 349 

. 226 



Poppies, fomentation of. 249 

syrup of. 264 

Pork and beans 149 

cured for the English market. . 324 

price of. 383 

cutting up 418 

choice of 471 

Portable soup 447 

Postage, rates of 396 

Post boring machine 92 

Posts, machine for boring 89 

ditch and embankment 90 

Potatoes 41 

Potatoe yeast 164 

starch 163 

Potted beef 451 

Poultices, common 262 

cold and sedative 250 

to hasten suppuration.... 250 

for ulcers 254 

linseed 250 

malt 255 

strong beer 255 

yeast 255 

charcoal 255 

Pound cake 145 

Powder, Dover's 263 

purgative 258 

Seidlitz 268 

Powers granted in the Constitution.. 345 
Prairie farm-house, perspective view 

of 63 

ground plan of. . 64 

Prairie farming 23 

land, quality of 13 

breaking 399 

farm, cost of a 402 

growing timber on the 307 

Prawns and shrimps, choice of. 473 

Preemption and naturalization laws 350 

rights 351 

act to grant 352 

claimants, affidavit re 

quired of 355 

Preparation of soil for madder 317 

Preparing souse 156 

green corn for winter use. 160 

Preservation of crops 45 

of milk 454 

composition 382 

Preserving bread moist 163 

butter 452 

cabbages 157 

eggs 452 

fish 445 

fruits and vegetables by 
means of syrup. . . . 459 

21^ 



PAOK. 

Preserving hams from flies 164 

meat 446 

roots, fruits and vegeta- 
bles 454 

Preventing calves from sucking 186 

smut in wheat 387 

Price of clearing land 17 

Price of fruit trees 285 

pork 383 

wheat in Europe 385 

Product of broomcorn 380 

madder 321 

Proportion of woodland 33 

Prospects of sheep raising in the west 215 
Provisions cured for the English mar- 
ket 323 

Proximity to market t 11 

Pruning trees 293 

Public lands 348 

Pudding, light flour 474 

bread 475 

arrow root 475 

for invalides 474 

Puff paste 131 

Pulse of cattle 202 

Pumpkin pies 136 

Punctured wounds 274 

Purchasing land 9 

Purgative powder 258 

Purging clyster 257 

horses 229 

Purifying water 437 

Purity of flour 124 

Putrid sore throat, gargle for 260 



auality of wild land 12 

prairie land 13 

Quantity of broomcorn 380 

' nutritive matter in ani- 
mal food 408 

nutritive matter in vege- 
table food 409 

meal in different grains. 407 

Quick biscuit 128 

Quickness in milking 106 

Quince trees, borer in 305 

marmalade ....n 460 



Rabbits, choice of 472 

Railfence 93 

cheap 98 

Rails sharpened 90 

Raising corn for sugar 364 

domestic animals 43 

Raspberry jam 466 

Rates of postage 396 

Raw tomato 160 

Rearing calves 181 



490 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Reducible ruptures 246 

Red water in cattle 19^2 

sheep 20.") 

Eefrijjerant lotion 249 

Regularity ill feeding sheep 214 

Rennedy for hydroijhobia 404 

Removing grease-spots 394 

Re[)orts on cheese 113 

Restoring diseased peach trees 311 

Revolutionary war 343 

Rheumatism, inflammatory 245 

chronic 24.") 

pills for...; 260 

ointment for 260 

Rhubarb 437 

Ribs, fractures of the 280 

Rich dough-nuts 141 

wedding cake 147 

Rice 166 

Rights of preemption 352 

Ringbone 225 

Ringworm 244 

Rolls 144 

Romance of forest life 19 

Roof, elm bark 55 

Root beer 261 

Rot in cattle 194 

sheep 206 

Roving habits of sheep 211 

Rough casting 4-0 

Ruptures 246 

reducible 246 

irreducible 247 

Ruta Baga 42 

S 

Saffron 436 

Sage 434 

cheese 118 428 

Salmon, choice of 472 

to pickle 450 

Salted codfish 156 

Salt for swine 220 

Salting and working butter 108 

Salt rheum 244 

Salts, to make black 359 

Salve, healing 262 

Sarsaparilla, decoction of 265 

Sauce-apple, pudding,tomato,148 149160 

Sausages 165 

Scab in sheep 209 

Scalds and burns 252 281 

extensive 2.53 

Scale of medical doses 23.3 

Seal]), wounds of the 27 

Scarlet fever 23 

Schabziegar cheese 433 

Schools, convenience to 11 

Scooring rot 194 

Scorbutic ulcers, poultice for 254 

Scotch orange-chip marmalade 466 



PASK. 

Scours in calves 186 

Scraper, views of 91 

Scraping broomcorn 378 

machine for 379 

Scratches in horses 227 

Scrofula, cure for 262 

Second floor of a cottage, plan of. . 59 

farm-house 68 

Sedative lotion 250 

Seeding land with grass seed 42 

directions for 43 

Seidlitz powders 268 

Selection of breeds of animals 44 

Setons, mode of inserting 176 

Setting the sponge 126 

Settlement of the United States 342 

Shaking carpets 394 

Shanty 51 

log 17 

front and back view of. 52 

Shape of fields 34 

Sharpened rails 90 

Sheep, diseases of 171, 205 

red water in 205 

blood in 205 

rot in 206 

dropsy in 207 

foot rot in 208 

sore teats in 208 

blown or blast in 208 

yellows in 209 

scab in 209 

purging 210 

grubs in 210 

winter keeping of 211 

roving habits of 21 1 

time for yarding 212 

mangers for 213 

regularity in feeding 214 

raising in the west 215 

skins, to cure with wool on. . 390 

Shipping articles 23 

Shrimps and prawns, choice of..... 473 

Simple fever 235 

Simple remedy for cough 259 

Simple ointment 263 

Simple tea cake 138 

Situation of fruit garden 286 

Size of fields 34 

Size, substitute for 424 

Skim-milk ciieese 430 

Slashing trees 20 

Slate-colored dye 169 

Slinking the calf 177 

Slugs among trees • 295 

Smut in wheat, to prevent 387 

Snipes and woodcocks, choice of... 472 

Soap, soft 152 

labor saving 15a 

Windsor and Castile 169 

liniment, compound 263 

camphorated 39T 



INDEX. 



491 



■An I 



Soft muffins 14j 

soap 15-2 

Soil, deepening by ploughing 41 

for pecacii trees 302 

and preparation for madder 31 

for hops . 335 

mixing 4J 

Sore tents in sheep 20)S 

nipples 2(5] 

throat, gargle for 2.39 

jiutrid 2fiO 

liinainmatory. 2G0 

Soup, transparent 2G7 

portable 447 

Souse, preparing 156 

Sowing wheat and grasf seed 20 

spring grain 31 

Sows eating their pigs 221 

Spaying swine 219 

Spearmint 435 

Spike, oil of 393 

Sponge, setting the ^ 126 

cake T. 143 

Sprains 270, 225 

embrocation for 251 

Spring grain, sowing 31 

Spruce beer 165 

Stables, building 29 

Staggers in cattle ig-a 

Starch, to make potatoe • 163 

Statement of butter making by J. T. 

Lansing 110 

Wm, Merrifield... 112 

Chas. Lyon 112 

cheese making, by H. 

P. & G. Allen'.... 114 

Daniel Marvin 115 

Phineas Hardy 116 

a crop of madder 316 

Stealing fruit 286 

Stifle 225 

Stilton cheese ; 428 

Stomach, cramp in the 244 

Straining corn sugar 369 

Stawberry jam 267 

Strengthening plaster 262 

String beans, how to cook 161 

Strong beer poultice 255 

Stump burnmg 21 

Stunted trees 290 

Substitute for size 424 

Sugar, maple 307, 359 

Indian corn 365 

Summer complaint 239 

Suppuration, poultice to hasten .... 250 

Swellings in horses 224 

Swine, diseases of 171, 216 

measles in 21 

kidney-worms in 217 

blind staggers in 218 

care of breeding 219 

spaying 219 



PAOK 

Swine, salt for.... 220 

breed of. 220 

in fruit garden 2^9 

value of to the farmer 3H3 

Swiney in horses 225 

Swiss cheese 43'^ 

Syllabub 145 

Syrup, projjer strength of. 460 

without heat 463 

of po])pies 264 



Table for admeasurement of cattle.. 406 

of cubic measures 388 

Taming heifers 106 

Tansy 436 

Tar water 264 

Tea cakes 138 

Testing the purity of flour 124 

Throat, wounds of 277 

foreign bodies in the 280 

Timber for fences 34 

on the prairies 307 

Time for yarding sheep 212 

Tincture of ginger 264 

Tomato figs 158 

catsup 159 

sauce 160 

pickles 160 

raw 160 

fried 160 

Tonic for debility in females 261 

Transparent soap 267 

Treating cows gently 105 

Treatment of horses 227 

Trees, price of fruit 285 

order of planting 287 

birds among fruit 290 

stunted 290 

care in planting 291 

pruning 293 

mice girdling 294 

slugs among 295 

nuisance around cherry 295 

fire blight in pear 296 

black gum in plum 297 

yellows in peach 300 

borers in quince 305 

to j)revent moss on 3J1 

to restore diseased peach 311 

Trembles 195 

Turbot, choice of 472 

Turkey, choice of 471 



Udder, downfall of the 188 

Ulcers, poultice for 254 

lotions for scorbutic 254 

United States, glance at the constitu- 
tion of.. 33fi 



492 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

United States, settlement of the 342 

otJiccrs of tlie 347 

value (if foreign money 

in 304 

TTrine, difficulty of. 244 

Uset'ji domestic medicines 2G3 

Utensils, cost of farming 24 

for dairy 108 

V 

Value of swine to the farmer 333 

a crop of broomcorn... . .. 380 

Varieties of cheese 427 

Veal, cutting up 419 

choice of 470 

Vegetable food, nutritive matter in. • 409 

Venis(jn, choice of. 471 

Vermont butter 108 

View of shanty 51 

cottage 57 

prairie farm-house 63 

the scraper 90 

the plough 91 

iron mill 92 

Vinegar making , . 154 

Virginia mode of curing hams 163 

W 

Walls, coloring for 421 

War of the Revolution 343 

Wash, incombustible 283 

Washing and drying madder 319 

Washington cake 162 

Water, making hard soft 154 

purifying 439 

chemical tests of. 443 

Weaning calves 181 

Weaving 475 

Wedding cake 147 

Weeds, destruction of. 390 

Weights and measures 123-233 

Well, cost of a 32 

Westphalia hams, curing 433 

cheese 413 

What the emigrant should sell 24 



PAOK 

Wheat nnd grass seed, sowing .... 20 

to prevent &mut in 387 

price of, in Eurojje 385 

Whip syllabub 144 

White gooseberry jam 467 

mildew 303 

Whitewashing cottages 100 

Whooping cough 243 

Wild lands, how to judge the quali- 
ty of 12 

Windsor and Castile soap 169 

Winter fruit, keejiing 306 

quarters... 30 

wheat 41 

Woodcocks and snipes, choice of.. . 472 

W^jotl, bread made of. 128 

land, proportion of 33 

mill 91 

iieat from green and dry... . 394 

decoction of the 266 

Working and salting butter 108 

Worms 239 

Wormwood 438 

Wounds, to stop the bleeding of 271 

incised 273 

punctured 274 

contused 275 

poisoned 276 

of the ear 277 

scalp 277 

throat 277 

chest 277 

belly 278 

T 

Yarding sheep, time for 212 

Year, directions for the first 25. 

Yeast poultice 255 

Yeast, hop 124 

hard 125 

milk 125 

potatoe 164 

Yellows in cattle 197 

sheep 209 

peach trees 302 

Yellow water in horses »r,t,. 224 



3477 



